New Self-Report Measures of Commuting Behaviors to University and Their Association with Sociodemographic Characteristics

In e na ional Jou nal o En i onmen al Resea ch and Public Heal h A icle New Sel -Repo Measu es o Commu ing Beha io s o Uni e si y and Thei Associa ion wi h Sociodemog aphic Cha ac e is ics Ximena Palma-Leal 1,2 , Fe nando Rod íguez-Rod íguez 2, Pablo Campos-Ga zón1, An onio Cas illo-Pa edes 3and Palma Chillón1,*   Ci a ion: Palma-Leal, X.; Rod íguez-Rod íguez, F.; Campos-Ga zón, P.; Cas illo-Pa edes, A.; Chillón, P. New Sel -Repo Measu es o Commu ing Beha io s o Uni e si y and Thei Associa ion wi h Sociodemog aphic Cha ac e is ics. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 12557. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ ije ph182312557 Academic Edi o : Paul B. Tchounwou Recei ed: 4 No embe 2021 Accep ed: 27 No embe 2021 Published: 29 No embe 2021 Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and ins i u ional a il- ia ions. Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). 1PROFITH Resea ch G oup, Depa men o Physical Educa ion and Spo s, Facul y o Spo Sciences, Spo and Heal h Uni e si y Resea ch Ins i u e (iMUDS), Uni e si y o G anada, 18011 G anada, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (X.P.-L.); pcampos@ug .es (P.C.-G.) 2IRyS G oup, School o Physical Educa ion, Pon i icia Uni e sidad Ca ólica de Valpa aíso, Viña del Ma 2340000, Chile; e nando. od iguez@puc .cl 3School o Pedagogy in Physical Educa ion, Facul y o Educa ion, Uni e sidad de Las Ame icas, San iago 8150000, Chile; [email p o ec ed] *Co espondence: pchillon@ug .es; Tel.: +34-600-706-999 Abs ac : Ac i e commu ing p o ides an oppo uni y o inc eased physical ac i i y le els by a simple, inexpensi e, and easy way o be inco po a ed in daily ou ines and could be conside ed a s eppings one o achie ing a sus ainable socie y since i p o ides physical, psychological, en i- onmen al, and economic bene i s. Objec i e: (a) o desc ibe he commu ing pa e ns o and om uni e si y in s uden s ega ding gende , (b) o p o ide new sel - epo a iables o measu e he ac i e commu ing beha io , and (c) o examine he sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics associa ed wi h commu ing beha io s. Ma e ial and Me hods: A o al o 1257 uni e si y s uden s (52.4% emales) pa icipa ed (22.4 ± 5.6 yea s old) om h ee Chilean uni e si ies loca ed in di e en ci ies. Resul s: 56.1% o women and 42.0% men use public bus o and om uni e si y. The commu ing ene gy expendi u e was highe in ac i e commu ing ollowed by public and p i a e modes o commu ing ( p< 0.001 ). The mos ac i e commu e s we e hose olde (men: OR = 3.637; 95% CI = 1.63, 8.10; women: OR = 8.841; 95% CI = 3.94, 13.78), hose who li ed in uni e si y esidence (men: OR = 12.432; 95% CI = 4.39, 35.19; women: OR = 3.952; 95% CI = 1.31, 11.85), belonged o low socioeconomic le el (men: OR = 3.820; 95% CI = 1.43, 10.18; women: OR = 4.936; 95% CI = 1.63, 14.90), and o public uni e si ies (men: OR = 26.757; 95% CI = 10.63, 67.34; women: OR = 8.029; 95% CI = 3.00, 21.48). Conclusion: The sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics may in luence in he mode o commu ing o uni e si y. New a iables o commu ing beha io s may be e icien o quan i y he physical ac i i y. Keywo ds: commu ing beha io s; physical ac i i y; uni e si y s uden s; ac i e anspo 1. In oduc ion Physical inac i i y is he ou h leading cause o dea h wo ldwide and was desc ibed as a pandemic ha needs u gen ac ion [ 1 ]. Mo eo e , i has been ecognized as a majo isk ac o o non-communicable diseases [ 2 ]. I has e idenced ha physically inac i e adul people a e 20–30% imes mo e likely a isk o dea h compa ed o ac i e people [3]. Physical ac i i y (PA) p omo ion is a p io i y ac oss di e en ages, social g oups, and coun ies wo ldwide [ 4 ]. Uni e si y s uden s could be a key popula ion o PA p omo ion [ 5 ] since he adop ed beha io s in his pe iod play a ole in he consolida ion o pa e ns h oughou hei li e spans [6,7]. Howe e , his pe iod migh be accompanied by he abandonmen o heal hy ou ines and habi s es ablished [ 8 ]. Ac i e commu ing, such as walking o cycling, p o ides an oppo uni y o inc eased PA le els [ 9 – 11 ] h ough a simple, inexpensi e, and easy way o be inco po a ed in daily ou ines [ 12 ]. Fu he mo e, his beha io s p o ides psychological [ 13 ], en i onmen al [ 14 ], and economic [ 15 ] bene i s. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 12557. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph182312557 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ije ph In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 12557 2 o 14 In ac , ac i e commu ing o and om uni e si y has been showed o be a use ul s a egy o inc ease daily PA le els [ 16 ]. In addi ion, ac i e commu ing could be conside ed a s eppings one o achie ing a sus ainable socie y [ 17 ]. Howe e , a limi ed numbe o s udies ha e been conduc ed on uni e si y s uden popula ions. The esea ch on he commu ing beha io s do no p esen a consensus on how o e alua e his p ope ly. Mos o he s udies ocused on ac i e commu ing use sel - epo ed measu es, and he ca ego ical a iable o ac i e s. passi e mode o commu ing is mos ly used and included in he s a is ical analysis [ 18 ]. Fo ins ance, sel - epo ed measu e s could be associa ed wi h ecall bias and social desi abili y [ 19 , 20 ]. On he o he hand, i has been decla ed ha he esea ch o commu ing beha io s may cap u e alued in o ma ion bu omi impo an di e ences i objec i e measu es a e no e alua ed [ 21 ]. The e o e, an app op ia e app oach is o conside ha objec i e and sel - epo ed measu es do no ha e o subs i u e each o he , and bo h should only be seen as complemen a y ins umen s [ 22 ]. Se e al s udies ecommend he inclusion and accu a ely assess o dose and measu e a iables o imp o e he compa abili y o da a and p o ide a be e pe spec i e [23,24]. The ac i e commu ing o uni e si y beha io s may be in luenced, ollowing he social- ecological model since childhood [ 25 ], by indi idual, social, communi y, en i onmen , and policy ac o s. Howe e , li le is known abou speci ic ac o s in luencing he ac i e commu ing o uni e si y, and mo e e idence is needed [ 26 ]. Examining he indi idual sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics ela ed o ac i e commu ing o uni e si y p o ides an empi ical basis o in e en ions ha could be implemen ed by uni e si ies o inc ease ac i e commu ing [ 27 ]. Uni e si y s uden s in he Uni ed S a es indica ed ha he mode o commu ing choice is in luenced by hei ype o esidence, bu o he ypes o in o ma ion may a ec ed hei mode o commu ing choice [28]. Simila ly, in B azil, ac i e commu ing was associa ed wi h low income in wo k popula ion [ 29 ], bu uni e si y s uden s we e no s udied. In Chile, he uni e si y s uden s e ealed ha pe sonal ac o s we e mo e in luencing han en i onmen al aspec s o using ac i e commu ing [30]. To he bes o ou knowledge, he e is a demanding need o explo e new and quan- i a i e sel - epo measu ing ac i e commu ing. Mo eo e , li le e idence is a ailable ela ed o he commu ing beha io s o uni e si y and i s associa ion wi h sociodemo- g aphic cha ac e is ics. The e o e, he aims o he cu en s udy we e (a) o desc ibe he commu ing pa e ns o and om uni e si y in s uden s ega ding gende , (b) o p o ide new sel - epo a iables o measu e he ac i e commu ing beha io , and (c) o examine he sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics associa ed wi h commu ing beha io s. 2. Ma e ials and Me hods 2.1. S udy Design and Pa icipan s This c oss-sec ional and non- andomized s udy was conduc ed be ween Ap il and No embe o 2017. A o al o 1257 uni e si y s uden s (52.4% women) wi h an a e age age o 22.4 ± 5.6 yea s pa icipa ed in his s udy. The pa icipan s we e ec ui ed om h ee di e en public and p i a e uni e si ies loca ed in di e en ci ies ( wo in Valpa aíso and one in San iago). The s uden s belonged o di e se acul ies (a , enginee ing, heal h, social sciences, and educa ion), and he ange o s ay o he uni e si y s uden s was om one o en semes e s. 2.2. P ocedu es and E hical Requi emen s Fi s ly, a le e was sen o he co esponding au ho i ies o he di e en uni e si ies explaining he objec i es o he s udy. Once he au ho iza ion was ob ained by he au ho - i ies, all uni e si y s uden s ha olun a ily ag eed o pa icipa e ecei ed in o ma ion abou he p ojec and illed ou an in o med consen o pa icipa e in his s udy. The in o med consen explained he cha ac e is ics o he ques ionnai e, he pu pose o he s udy, and he con iden iali y o he esul s. The s uden s pa icipa ed by comple ing a 15- o 30-min sel - epo ed pape -based ques ionnai e implemen ed by olun ee eache s ha we e p e iously ained. All p ocedu es ollowed he Helsinki p o ocols [ 31 ] and In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 12557 3 o 14 we e app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o Pon i icia Uni e sidad Ca ólica de Valpa aíso (Code: CCF02052017). 2.3. Ins umen s The sel - epo ed ques ionnai e used was c ea ed a he School o Physical Educa ion o he Pon i icia Uni e sidad Ca ólica de Valpa aíso by esea che s on he opic o ac i e commu ing. The ques ionnai e called “Ques ionnai e o mode o commu ing and PA o he uni e si y” has a o al o 28 ques ions and was c ea ed a e a deep li e a u e e iew and expe ’s consul a ion. This includes ques ions abou sociodemog aphic a iables and commu ing beha io s. E e y ques ion was adap ed o Chilean uni e si y s uden s’ con ex and has been eliable o uni e si y s uden s in Chilean uni e si y s uden s [32]. 2.3.1. Sociodemog aphic Cha ac e is ics Pa icipan s epo ed hei name, age, gende , yea o admission o he uni e si y, pos al add ess (as uni e si y s uden ), ype o esidence (e.g., amily esidence o uni e si y esidence), locali y a ea (e.g., u ban, o u al), and socioeconomic cha ac e is ics. The age was classi ied in wo ca ego ies: younge (18–25 yea s old) and olde (>26 yea s old) [ 33 ]. The ype o esidence was assessed using he ques ion: Wi h whom do you li e? Answe op ions we e di ided in o wo ca ego ies: amily esidence (e.g., pa en s’ home o own house) and uni e si y esidence (e.g., sha ed la wi h o he s uden s o hall o esidence), as i has been epo ed in p e ious s udies [ 34 ]. The locali y a ea was assessed wi h he ques ion: Whe e is he a ea you eside as a s uden ? Answe op ions we e wo ca ego ies: u ban and u al. The amily a luence scale (FAS) o socioeconomic le els was used [ 35 ]. The a iables o amily housing condi ions a e de ined wi h he ollowing ques ions: Does you amily own a ca ? (No (0); Yes, one (1); Yes, wo o mo e (2)); How many compu e s does you amily own? (None (0); One (1); Two (2); Mo e han wo (3)); Do you ha e you own bed oom o you sel ? (No (0); Yes (1)); and Do you ha e in e ne access? (No (0); Yes (1)). A sco e was assigned o each answe and hen summed in o de o ob ain he o al poin s ( om 0 o 7 poin s) [ 36 ]. The e o e, pa icipan s we e classi ied in o h ee ca ego ies ega ding he socioeconomic s a us le els: low (0 o 3 poin s), medium (4 o 5 poin s), and high (6 o 7 poin s). Finally, he ype o uni e si y ma ches acco ding o he ype o he geog aphic a ea and we e classi ied in wo ca ego ies: public (Valpa aíso) and p i a e (San iago). Al hough bo h ci ies a e in he cen al zone o Chile, San iago is loca ed in a alley su ounded by he Andes and Chilean Cos al moun ains, and Valpa aíso is a po ci y on he coas o Chile. 2.3.2. Commu ing Beha io s Mode o Commu ing The ques ion abou mode o commu ing was sugges ed in a sys ema ic e iew o 158 s udies in he scien i ic li e a u e and has been p oposed as he mos app op ia e measu emen o asking abou he mode o commu ing [ 18 ]. The ques ion abou mode o commu ing used in he cu en s udy was alida ed [ 37 ] and eliable [ 38 ] in young Spanish people and has been eliable o uni e si y s uden s in Chilean uni e si y s uden s [ 32 ]. The mode o commu ing o and om uni e si y was assessed using sepa a e ques ions: How do you usually a el o and om uni e si y? The answe op ions we e: walking, cycling, ca , mo o cycle, public bus, me o/ ain, and o he s. Pa icipan s we e classi ied in h ee ca ego ies as: ac i e (walking and cycling), p i a e (ca and mo o cycle), and public (public bus and me o/ ain) commu ing, simila o p e ious s udies [ 39 ]. S uden s who answe ed combined (e.g., ac i e + p i a e) we e classi ied in he mode o commu ing in ol ing he highes PA le els. Ac i e commu ing in ol es he highes PA le els, ollowed by public commu ing, which in ol es in e media e le el o PA by walking o and om s a ions and s ops, and p i a e commu ing, assumed o in ol e he lowes PA le els [40]. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 12557 4 o 14 Commu ing Time, Commu ing Dis ance, Commu ing Speed, and Commu ing Ene gy Expendi u e Time and dis ance we e assessed and based on his in o ma ion, and wo a iables we e calcula ed o p o ide u he insigh s in o he commu ing beha io s: speed and ene gy expendi u e. The commu ing ime o and om uni e si y was assessed using he ques ion: How long does i ake o go om home o uni e si y? Pa icipan s indica ed he minu es pe day dedica ed o each mode o commu ing o and om uni e si y om Monday o F iday [ 32 ]. These minu es we e sepa a ed acco ding o he ca ego y o mode o commu ing. The commu ing dis ance o and om uni e si y was assessed using he ques ion: Wha is you pos al add ess whe e you li e as s uden ? Once he uni e si y s uden s sel - epo ed hei pos al add ess, he esea ch eam geocoded bo h home and uni e si y in Google Maps, selec ing he sho es ne wo k dis ance on oo in kilome e s (km), as i has been epo ed in p e ious s udies [ 41 ]. The commu ing speed was calcula ed acco ding o he equa ion: commu ing dis ance in km di ided by commu ing ime in hou s ( he minu es o commu ing ime we e p e iously con e ed in o hou s), and he esul was exp essed in km/hou . The commu ing ene gy expendi u e exp essed in Me abolic Equi alen s (METs) was calcula ed o es ima e he ene gy cos o each mode o commu ing (pe minu e), based in he code o Compendium o Physical Ac i i ies o adul s [ 42 ]. The speci ic METs sco e assigned (pe minu e) by each mode o commu ing acco ding o he code in he Compendium was mul iplied by he commu ing ime o ob ain he o al ene gy expendi u e es ima ed (see calcula ion examples, Supplemen a y Ma e ial). These wo commu ing ene gy expendi u es (pe minu e and o al) we e calcula ed o di e en ia e he modes o commu ing since i is possible ha o al commu ing ene gy expendi u e om wo di e en pa icipan s may be simila , bu hese expendi u es migh come om di e en beha io s (e.g., walking s. si ing in public commu ing), and consequen ly, commu ing ene gy expendi u e pe minu e migh be di e en . In ac i e commu ing, he ene gy expendi u e pe minu e was es ablished wi h hei espec i e commu ing speed acco ding o he anges o he Compendium. The METs used in his s udy we e: (i) 2.0 METs (less han 3.0 km/h—code 17151); (ii) 2.8 METs (3.0 o 3.9 km/h—code 171152); (iii) 3.0 METs (4.0 o 4.49 km/h—code 17170); (i ) 3.65 METs (4.5 o 5.49 km/h—code [17170 + 17200]/2); ( ) 4.3 METs (5.5 o 6.49 km/h—code 17200); ( i) 5 METs (6.5 o 6.9 km/h—code 17220); ( ii) 7 METs (7 o 8.49 km/h—code 17230); and ( iii) 8.3 METs ( ≥ 8.5 km/h—code 17231). A p e ious s udy calcula ed he es ima ion o ene gy expendi u e in ac i e commu ing [ 43 ] by mul iplying he METs sco e o he Compendium by he minu es pe week spen walking and cycling bu did no es ablish commu ing speed. The e o e, in he cu en s udy, we sough highe accu acy o he da a ob ained. Fo public and p i a e commu ing, he commu ing ene gy expendi u e pe minu e was no assigned acco ding o he commu ing speed calcula ed since hese speeds co espond o mo o ized anspo . Fo public and p i a e commu ing, he METs used we e 1.3 METs (code 16016, iding in bus o ain and code 16015, iding in ca , espec i ely). Addi ionally, o public commu ing, p e ious esea ch has de e mined ha he median walking ime included in his ype o commu ing is 15 min pe day [ 40 ]. The e o e, 7.5 min pe ip ( o and om uni e si y) wi h an ene gy expendi u e o 2.5 METs (code 17161), as conside ed in he Compendium o walking o he s a ions and s ops [42], was used. 2.4. S a is ical Analysis Mode o commu ing and sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics we e analysed using de- sc ip i e s a is ics and we e epo ed as he mean ± s anda d de ia ion (SD) o con inuous a iables and as equencies and pe cen ages (%) o ca ego ical a iables. The signi i- can di e ences in hese desc ip i e a iables o men and women we e analysed using chi-squa e es o ca ego ical a iables and s anda d analysis o a iance (ANOVA) o con inuous a iables, whe e he le el o signi icance was se o p< 0.05. Associa ions be ween mode o commu ing wi h sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics we e s udied using mul inomial logis ic eg ession analysis. Mode o commu ing we e included in he model In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 12557 5 o 14 as he dependen a iable, and sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics we e included as indepen- den a iables indi idually and adjus ed by dis ance, age, and socioeconomic le els (excep in he analysis when ha a iable was he p edic o ). Associa ions be ween commu ing beha io s (speed and ene gy expendi u e) and sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics we e s udied using linea eg ession. Commu ing beha io s we e included in he model as he dependen a iable, and sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics we e included as independen a iables indi idually and adjus ed by dis ance, age, and socioeconomic le els (excep in he analysis when ha a iable was he p edic o ). The s a is ical analyses we e conduc ed using he IBM SPSS S a is ics ( . 25.0 o WINDOWS, Chicago, IL, USA), and all analyses we e pe o med join ly o men and women and adjus ed by gende . 3. Resul s The commu ing pa e ns o and om uni e si y by gende a e shown in Figu e 1. The main mode o commu ing o and om uni e si y was public bus, which was highe in women han men (p< 0.001). The second mode o commu ing mos used was walking, wi h men showing highe pe cen ages han women (p< 0.001). Two s a is ical di e ences in he mode o commu ing om uni e si y by ca and cycling we e ound, wi h men showing lowe pe cen ages in ca (p< 0.05) and highe pe cen ages in cycling han women (p< 0.05). Rega ding going o uni e si y by mo o cycle, he e was signi ican di e ences be ween women and men (p< 0.05). In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021, 18, x 6 o 15 Figu e 1. Commu ing pa e ns bo h (A) o uni e si y and (B) om uni e si y in uni e si y s uden s by gende . (*) Signi ican di e ences wi h p < 0.05 and (**) signi ican di e ences wi h p < 0.001. Sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics and commu ing beha io s by gende a e p esen ed in Table 1. The mean age was 22.4 ± 5.6 yea s; men we e signi ican ly olde han women (p < 0.001), and mo e men han women li ed in a amily esidence (p < 0.001). Mos o he sample li ed in an u ban a ea (96.8%) and had a medium socioeconomic s a us (52.6%), wi hou s a is ical di e ences among gende s. A pe cen age o 71.4% men and 44.9% women came om public uni e si ies wi h geog aphical a ea in Valpa aíso (p < 0.001). The commu ing ime and dis ance o uni e si y we e highe in public han p i a e mode o commu ing (p < 0.001). The commu ing speed was highe in p i a e mode o commu - ing ollowed by public and ac i e mode o commu ing (p < 0.001). The commu ing ene gy expendi u e pe min was highe in ac i e commu e s ollowed by public and p i a e com- mu e s, and o al commu ing ene gy expendi u e was highe in public commu e s, ol- lowed by ac i e and p i a e commu e s in women and men (all, p < 0.001). Figu e 1. Commu ing pa e ns bo h ( A ) o uni e si y and ( B ) om uni e si y in uni e si y s uden s by gende . (*) Signi ican di e ences wi h p< 0.05 and (**) signi ican di e ences wi h p< 0.001. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 12557 6 o 14 Sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics and commu ing beha io s by gende a e p esen ed in Table 1. The mean age was 22.4 ± 5.6 yea s; men we e signi ican ly olde han women ( p< 0.001 ), and mo e men han women li ed in a amily esidence (p< 0.001). Mos o he sample li ed in an u ban a ea (96.8%) and had a medium socioeconomic s a us (52.6%), wi hou s a is ical di e ences among gende s. A pe cen age o 71.4% men and 44.9% women came om public uni e si ies wi h geog aphical a ea in Valpa aíso (p< 0.001). The commu ing ime and dis ance o uni e si y we e highe in public han p i a e mode o commu ing (p< 0.001). The commu ing speed was highe in p i a e mode o commu ing ollowed by public and ac i e mode o commu ing (p< 0.001). The commu ing ene gy expendi u e pe min was highe in ac i e commu e s ollowed by public and p i a e commu e s, and o al commu ing ene gy expendi u e was highe in public commu e s, ollowed by ac i e and p i a e commu e s in women and men (all, p< 0.001). Table 1. Sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics and commu ing beha io s o pa icipan s by gende . All (n= 1257) X±SD/n(%) Men (n= 598) X±SD/n(%) Women (n= 659) X±SD/n(%) p-Value Sociodemog aphic Cha ac e is ics Age (yea s) 22.4 ±5.6 25.0 ±7.2 20.2 ±1.9 <0.001 Younge (18–25) 1021 (81.2) 384 (64.2) 637 (96.7) <0.001 Olde (>26) 236 (18.8) 214 (35.8) 22 (3.3) Type o esidence Family esidence 894 (71.1) 367 (61.4) 527 (20.0) <0.001 Uni e si y esidence 363 (28.9) 231 (38.6) 132 (80.0) Locali y a ea Ru al 40 (3.2) 15 (2.5) 25 (3.8) 0.195 U ban 1217 (96.8) 583 (97.5) 634 (96.2) Socioeconomic le els High 213 (16.9) 92 (15.4) 121 (18.4) 0.356 Medium 661 (52.6) 318 (53.2) 343 (52.0) Low 383 (30.5) 188 (31.4) 195 (29.6) Type o uni e si y and geog aphical a ea P i a e (San iago) 534 (42.5) 171 (28.6) 363 (55.1) <0.001 Public (Valpa aíso) 723 (57.5) 427 (71.4) 296 (44.9) Commu ing Beha io s Mode o commu ing P i a e 135 (10.7) 60 (10.0) 75 (11.4) <0.001 Public 791 (62.9) 332 (55.5) 459 (69.7) Ac i e 331 (26.3) 206 (34.4) 125 (19.0) Commu ing ime (min) P i a e 17.6 ±22.0 18.5 ±22.2 17.0 ±21.8 <0.001 Public 24.2 ±27.6 21.4 ±27.2 26.7 ±27.2 <0.001 Ac i e 24.4 ±17.9 25.0 ±17.6 23.7 ±18.2 <0.001 Commu ing dis ance (km) P i a e 12.5 ±16.7 11.0 ±9.9 13.7 ±20.6 <0.001 Public 14.4 ±12.9 14.0 ±13.2 14.7 ±12.7 <0.001 Ac i e 1.8 ±3.3 1.8 ±3.7 1.9 ±3.7 <0.001 Commu ing speed (km/h) P i a e 79.1 ±125.5 57.7 ±70.8 92.3 ±148.3 <0.001 Public 28.4 ±28.2 26.6 ±23.7 29.7 ±31.0 <0.001 Ac i e 4.5 ±8.5 3.2 ±6.3 6.2 ±10.4 <0.001 In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 12557 7 o 14 Table 1. Con . All (n= 1257) X±SD/n(%) Men (n= 598) X±SD/n(%) Women (n= 659) X±SD/n(%) p-Value Ene gy expendi u e pe min (METs) P i a e 1.3 ±0.0 1.3 ±0.0 1.3 ±0.0 0.985 Public 1.8 ±0.4 1.8 ±0.4 1.8 ±0.5 0.122 Ac i e 5.9 ±2.4 5.8 ±2.3 6.0 ±2.6 0.096 To al Ene gy expendi u e (METs) P i a e 70.9 ±69.2 74.4 ±77.7 67.4 ±61.8 <0.001 Public 154.9 ±66.4 149.9 ±63.8 158.5 ±67.4 <0.001 Ac i e 120.5 ±93.2 113.8 ±99.6 131.7 ±91.5 <0.001 Abb e ia ions: X ± SD, Mean ± S anda d De ia ion; min, minu es; km, kilome es; km/h, kilome es/hou s; METs, Me abolic Equi alen s. The mode o commu ing associa ed wi h sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics by gende a e p esen ed in Table 2. The mos ac i e commu e s we e hose olde , hose who li ed in uni e si y esidence, and belonged o public uni e si y om Valpa aíso (p< 0.05). In addi ion, he women ha belonged o low and medium socioeconomic le el also showed o be he mos ac i e commu e s (p< 0.05). On he o he hand, men who used public mode o commu ing we e olde , belonged o low socioeconomic le el, and o public uni e si ies om Valpa aíso and women who used public mode o commu ing we e hose who belonged o low and medium socioeconomic le el, and o public uni e si ies om Valpa aíso compa ed o hose who used p i a e mode o commu ing (p< 0.05). Acco ding o he commu ing beha io s, in men and women, ac i e commu ing dec eased wi h highe commu ing ime and commu ing dis ance o uni e si y (bo h, p< 0.05). Finally, ac i e and public commu e s epo ed highe ene gy expendi u e pe min and o al ene gy expendi u e compa ed o hose ha use p i a e mode o commu ing (bo h, p< 0.05). Table 2. Associa ions be ween mode o commu ing wi h sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics and commu ing beha io s measu es in uni e si y s uden s by gende . Mode o Commu ing o Uni e si y ** Men Women Ac i e Public Ac i e Public OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI) Sociodemog aphic Age (yea s) Younge (18–25) Re . Re . Re . Re . Olde (>26) 3.63 * (1.63, 8.10) 2.24 * (1.13, 4.44) 8.84 * (3.94, 13.78) 0.84 (0.21, 1.74) Type o esidence Family esidence Re . Re . Re . Re . Uni e si y esidence 12.43 * (4.39, 35.19) 2.33 (0.86, 6.25) 3.95 * (1.31, 11.85) 1.34 (0.50, 3.57) Locali y a ea Ru al Re . Re . Re . Re . U ban 1.57 (0.06, 36.43) 1.66 (0.20, 13.70) 1.47 (0.04, 44.94) 1.19 (0.32, 4.40) In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 12557 8 o 14 Table 2. Con . Mode o Commu ing o Uni e si y ** Men Women Ac i e Public Ac i e Public OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI) Socioeconomic le els High Re . Re . Re . Re . Medium 0.81 (0.31, 2.14) 1.30 (0.62, 2.73) 2.44 * (1.02, 5.81) 2.75 * (1.56, 4.83) Low 3.10 (0.95, 10.09) 3.82 * (1.43, 10.18) 4.93 * (1.63, 14.90) 4.70 * (2.19, 10.06) Type o uni e si y and geog aphical a ea P i a e (San iago) Re . Re . Re . Re . Public (Valpa aíso) 26.75 * (10.63, 67.34) 13.68 * (6.34, 29.51) 8.02 * (3.00, 21.48) 3.75 * (1.74, 8.11) Commu ing Beha io s Commu ing ime 0.93 * (0.87, 0.99) 1.00 (0.94, 1.06) 0.92 * (0.88, 0.96) 0.99 (0.96, 1.02) Commu ing dis ance 0.54 * (0.31, 0.92) 1.02 (0.99, 1.05) 0.49 * (0.42, 0.57) 1.00 (0.98, 1.02) Commu ing speed 2.11 (0.16, 4.38) 0.94 (0.76, 1.15) 0.96 (0.91, 1.02) 0.97 (0.92, 1.02) Ene gy expendi u e pe min 16.68 * (7.73, 19.69) 9.11 * (6.85, 15.07) 19.04 * (8.18, 25.68) 8.76 * (4.11, 13.20) Ene gy expendi u e 1.01 * (1.00, 1.02) 1.02 * (1.01, 1.03) 1.02 * (1.01, 1.03) 1.03 * (1.02, 1.04) Analysis we e adjus ed o dis ance, age, and socioeconomic le els (excep in he analysis when ha a iable was he p edic o a iable). Abb e ia ions: OR, Odd Ra io; 95% CI, 95% Con idence In e als. (*) Signi ican associa ion wi h p< 0.05; (**) P i a e commu ing was s ablished as e e ence. The commu ing beha io s o uni e si y associa ed wi h sociodemog aphic cha ac- e is ics by gende a e p esen ed in Table 3. The commu ing speed p esen ed nega i e associa ions wi h s uden s who li ed in uni e si y esidence, bo h in men and women (bo h, p< 0.05). In addi ion, he commu ing speed o uni e si y showed one nega i e associa ion wi h male s uden s who belong o public uni e si y om Valpa aíso and one posi i e associa ion wi h women who belonged o u ban locali y a ea (bo h, p< 0.05). Rega ding commu ing ene gy expendi u e pe min, men and women p esen ed posi i e associa ions wi h s uden s who li ed un uni e si y esidence and belonged o public uni e si y (bo h, p< 0.05). Table 3. Associa ions be ween commu ing beha io s wi h sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics in uni e si y s uden s by gende . Commu ing Beha io s o Uni e si y Men Women Speed EE pe min Speed EE pe min Be a (95% CI) Be a (95% CI) Be a (95% CI) Be a (95% CI) Sociodemog aphic Age (yea s) Younge (18–25) Re . Re . Re . Re . Olde (>26) −2.24 (−7.60, 3.11) 0.33 (−0.07, 0.73) 3.99 (−11.95, 19.94) 0.47 (−0.40, 1.35) In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 12557 9 o 14 Table 3. Con . Commu ing Beha io s o Uni e si y Men Women Speed EE pe min Speed EE pe min Be a (95% CI) Be a (95% CI) Be a (95% CI) Be a (95% CI) Type o esidence Family esidence Re . Re . Re . Re . Uni e si y esidence −19.64 * (−24.81, −14.47) 2.55 * (2.19, 2.90) −19.12 * (−25.72, −12.52) 2.05 * (1.68, 2.43) Locali y a ea Ru al Re . Re . Re . Re . U ban 15.21 (−4.25, 34.68) −1.22 (−2.50, 0.05) 24.97 * (6.06, 43.87) −0.93 (−1.76, −0.11) Socioeconomic le els High Re . Re . Re . Re . Medium 1.46 (−2.56, 5.49) 0.07 (−0.22, 0.37) 4.27 (−0.99, 9.56) −0.01 (−0.27, 0.19) Low −1.67 (−5.46, 2.16) 0.01 (−0.19, 0.22) −4.18 (−8.77, 0.41) 0.76 (−0.19, 0.34) Type o uni e si y and geog aphical a ea P i a e (San iago) Re . Re . Re . Re . Public (Valpa aíso) −10.03 * (−17.13, −2.93) 1.34 * (0.92, 1.77) −5.65 (−13.09, 1.88) 0.97 * (0.62, 1.33) Analysis we e adjus ed o age and socioeconomic le els (excep in he analysis when ha a iable was he p edic o a iable). Abb e ia ions: Be a, Uns anda dized Be a coe icien ; 95% CI, 95% Con idence In e als; EE, Ene gy expendi u e; * Signi ican di e ences wi h p< 0.05. 4. Discussion The main indings we e ha he public mode o commu ing was he mos used by Chilean uni e si y s uden s; secondly, new a iables o commu ing beha io s may be e icien o quan i y he PA, and hi dly, Chilean s uden s we e mo e likely o use ac i e and public mode o commu ing o uni e si y when hey belonged o public uni e si- ies om Valpa aíso, li ed in uni e si y esidence, we e olde s uden s, and had a low socioeconomic le el. Acco ding o commu ing pa e ns o and om uni e si y, he public bus was he main mode o commu ing o and om uni e si y in men and women. Simila esul s we e epo ed in Canada, whe e he majo i y o uni e si y s uden s (55.0%) used public bus as a p e e ence [ 44 ]. Walking was he second mode o commu ing o and om uni e si y in men and women, such as in a s udy in Spain [ 43 ], whe e 22.3% o men and women also epo ed walking as he second mode o commu ing. No wi hs anding he simila esul s, men showed lowe pe cen ages in he use o public bus and highe pe cen ages in walking han women. In he Uni ed S a es, i was ound ha gende ends o a ec he choice o he mode o commu ing o uni e si y s uden s [ 45 ], and in Chile, he mode o commu ing o women is de e mined by he secu i y ha his implies o hem [ 46 ]. Fu he , in he cu en s udy, men p esen a highe pe cen age in cycling and mo o cycle han women, being he less common modes o commu ing o and om uni e si y in bo h gende s. Rega ding o cycling, simila esul s we e ob ained in a s udy in Cos a Rica, whe e app oxima ely 1% o uni e si y s uden s use he bicycle commu ing o and om uni e si y [ 47 ]. Rega ding o mo o cycle, i has been epo ed ha he majo i y o use s o mo o cycles in La in Ame ica coun ies, such as B azil, Colombia, A gen ina, and Venezuela, we e mainly young men [ 48 ], bu lack o s udies ela ed o use o mo o cycles in uni e si y s uden s makes di icul he compa ison wi h he esul s o he p esen s udy. In he same way, he mos likely cause o his esul may be due o he ac ha ac oss La in Ame ica, he in as uc u e o oad sa e y condi ions o ac i e commu ing a e gene ally poo and/o non-exis en and discou age po en ial use s [ 49 ]. Howe e , Chile is implemen ing new