Is miss sympathy a credible defendant alleging intimate partner violence in a trial for murder?

The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 2011, 3(1) www.usc.es/sepjf j ISSN: 1889-1861 T TH HE E E EU UR RO OP PE EA AN N J JO OU UR RN NA AL L O OF F P PS SY YC CH HO OL LO OG GY Y A AP PP PL LI IE ED D T TO O L LE EG GA AL L C CO ON NT TE EX XT T Volume 4, Number 2, July 2012 T Th he e o of ff fi ic ci ia al l J Jo ou ur rn na al l o of f t th he e SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE PSICOLOGÍA JURÍDICA Y FORENSE & SOCIEDAD IBEROAMERICANA DE JUSTICIA TERAPÉUTICA Website: http://www.usc.es/sepjf 45 The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 2012, 4(2) Eur. j. psychol. appl. legal context, 2012, 4(2), 99-196, ISSN: 1889-1861 www.usc.es/sepjf Editor Ramón Arce, University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain). Associate Editors Gualberto Buela-Casal, University of Granada (Spain). Francisca Fariña, University of Vigo (Spain). Günter Köhnken, University of Kiel (Germany). Ronald Roesch, Simon Fraser University (Canada). Editorial Board Rui Abrunhosa, University of O Miño (Portugal). Ray Bull, University of Leicester (UK). Thomas Bliesener, University of Kiel (Germany). Fernando Chacón, Complutense University of Madrid (Spain). Ángel Egido, University of Angers (France). Jorge Folino, National University of La Plata (Argentina). Antonio Godino, University of Lecce (Italy). Friedrich Lösel, University of Cambridge (UK). María Ángeles Luengo, University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain). Eduardo Osuna, University of Murcia (Spain). Francisco Santolaya, President of the Spanish Psychological Association (Spain). Juan Carlos Sierra, University of Granada (Spain). Jorge Sobral, University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain). Max Steller, Free University of Berlin, (Germany). Francisco Tortosa, University of Valencia (Spain). Peter J. Van Koppen, Maastricht University (The Netherlands). David Wexler, University of Arizona (USA), Director of International Network on Therapeutic Jurisprudence. Indexation ANEP ACPN DIALNET DICE DIE ELEKTRONISCHE ZEITSCHRIFTENBIBLIOTHEK (EZB) DOAJ EBSCO GOOGLE SCHOLAR ISOC LATINDEX PASCAL PSICODOC REFDOC SCIRUS SCOPUS ULRICHS WEB Official Journal of the Sociedad Española de Psicología Jurídica y Forense (www.usc.es/sepjf) Published By: SEPJF. Published in: Santiago de Compostela (Spain) Volume 4, Number 1. Order Form: see www.usc.es/sepjf Frequency: 2 issues per year (January, July). E-mail address: [email protected] Postal address: The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela (Spain). ISSN: 1889-1861. D.L.: C-4376-2008 45 The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 2012, 4(2): 179-196 www.usc.es/sepjf Correspondence: Antonio Herrera Enríquez. Departamento de Psicología Social. Universidad de Granada. Facultad de Psicología. E-mail: a[email protected] ISSN 1889-1861 © The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context IS MISS SYMPATHY A CREDIBLE DEFENDANT ALLEGING INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE IN A TRIAL FOR MURDER? Antonio Herrera, Inmaculada Valor-Segura, and Francisca Expósito Universidad de Granada (Spain) (Received 3 May 2011; revised 11 April 2012; accepted 13 April 2012) Abstract Current research has postulated that judicial inferencing and judgement-making are subject to biased appraisals. This study assessed the factors reported in the literature associated to the appraisal of criminality in a mock case of a battered woman standing trial for murdering her husband, and who pleaded legitimate selfdefence in response to an instance of intimate partner violence. A nationwide sample of 169 police officers from different cities in Spain freely volunteered to participate in the study. Using a mock trial design, the defendant´s prototypicality (prototypical vs. nonprototypical), and physical attractiveness (attractive vs. unattractive) were manipulated. Participants were required to assess the criminality (credibility, responsibility, and controllability) of a battered woman accused of murdering her husband, and who alleged legitimate self-defence in response to an incident of intimate partner violence. The results showed that a defendant perceived as the prototype of a battered woman was judged as having less or no control of the situation; physical attractiveness increased the perception of the defendant´s responsibility in committing the crime; and an interaction between prototypicality and attractiveness in assigning credibility to the defendant´s testimony. Moreover, hostile sexism mediated the relationship between the defendant´s prototypicality and controllability. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for judicial judgement making in cases of battered women who kill their aggressors. Keywords: intimate partner violence; criminality; prototypicality; attractiveness; sexism. Resumen La investigación ha puesto de manifiesto que el proceso de inferencia y toma de decisiones, es sensible a múltiples sesgos que pueden afectar tales juicios o valoraciones. La presente investigación trata de analizar algunos de los posibles factores que la literatura ha relacionado con la valoración de la criminalidad, en un caso en que se juzga a una mujer que ha matado a su marido y que alega, en su defensa, haber sido víctima de violencia de género. Participaron en el estudio 169 policías procedentes de distintas ciudades españolas, de manera voluntaria y anónima. Mediante un diseño de escenarios en el que se presentaba un caso judicial ficticio, se manipuló la prototipicidad de la acusada (prototípica vs. no prototípica) y su atractivo físico (atractiva vs. no atractiva). Los participantes tenían que valorar la criminalidad (credibilidad, responsabilidad y controlabilidad) de una mujer, que alegaba haber sido víctima de violencia de género, acusada de haber matado a su marido. Los resultados mostraron que cuando se presenta a la acusada como prototipo de mujer maltratada, se le atribuía un menor control de la situación, que el atractivo físico aumentaba la percepción de responsabilidad de la acusada en el delito cometido; y una interacción entre el atractivo físico y la prototipicidad en la evaluación de la credibilidad de la acusada. Asimismo, el sexismo hostil de los participantes actuaba como variable mediadora en la relación entre prototipicidad y la percepción de controlabilidad de la acusada. Estos resultados tienen implicaciones para la formación de juicios sobre víctimas de violencia de género que asesinen a su agresor y para la atención a las denunciantes de violencia de género que son discutidos. Palabras clave: violencia de género; criminalidad; prototipicidad; atractivo; sexismo. 45 180 A. Herrera et al. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 2012, 4(2): 179-196 Introduction In everyday life, people continuously make judgments based on what is purported to be unequivocal evidence in the belief that it is factual and valid. However, every inference of reality or particular instance of it is partly conditioned by the inferrer´s perception (Suárez, Pérez, Soto, Muñiz, & García-Cueto, 2011). Several studies have consistently shown that jury decision-making is based on exogenous extralegal criteria (Hammon, Berry, & Rodríguez, 2011). Some studies have focused on judge and jury decision-making in order to examine the impact of physical features (e.g. the defendant´s attractiveness) and cognitive attributes (prototypicality) on the appraisal of criminality (the defendant´s credibility, responsibility, and controllability) that drives the verdict and sentencing (Bollingmo, Wessel, Eilertsen, & Magnussen, 2008; Efran, 1974; Leventhal & Krate, 1977). The influence of physical attractiveness on the appraisal of criminality The defendant´s or plaintiff´s physical attractiveness are among the most frequently assessed variables in relation to interpersonal perceptions and decisionmaking (Agthe, Spörrle, & Maner, 2011; Sheppard, Goffin, Lewis, & Olson, 2011). The influence of physical attractiveness has been extensively examined in the field of Social Psychology, and its effects have been reported in an array of contexts (Lemay, Clark, & Greenberg, 2010; Moore, Filippou, & Perrett, 2011). Thus, attractive people are often perceived as having positive personality features and attributes in consonance with the implicit theory that “beauty is goodness” (Dion, Berscheid, & Walster, 1972; Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, & Longo, 1991). This cognitive bias is also known as the halo effect (Thorndike, 1920), whereby a subjective perception of a single positive trait of a person may be extended or carried-over from one desirable trait to another leading to a biased positive global assessment of that person. This author was the first to empirically research this common error in reasoning. Similarly, Asch (1946) proposed that attractiveness was a central trait in interpersonal perception that prompted a chain reaction whereby a person was perceived to have other positive and desirable traits. Likewise, Moore et al. (2011) found that people with physically attractive facial features were perceived to have additional positive personal qualities such as intelligence. 45 Prototypicality and attractiveness 181 The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 2012, 4(2): 179-196 The halo effect is intertwined with implicit personality theory (Kelly, 1955) that claim the first features we perceive become the working framework for the perception of further future characteristics and attitudes. Hence, the halo effect embodies the widely held belief that physically attractive individuals are more sociable, friendly, warm, competent and intelligent than unattractive individuals (Feingold, 1992; Langlois et al., 2000). Likewise, Fiore, Taylor, Mendelsohn, and Hearst (2008) found that in an internet dating scenario, individuals with facially attractive photographs were perceived more favourably than unattractive people. Similar results have been reported in studies on social networking sites (Brand, Bonatsos, D’Orazio, & DeShong 2012; Guéguen, Lourel, Charron, Fischer-Lokou, & Lamy, 2009). In the occupational field, Sheppard et al. (2011) found a relation between target attractiveness and the accuracy of trait judgments within a mock job interview. Generally, attractive targets were rated more positively and more accurately, calling into question the assumption that biases are responsible for the more positive ratings that attractive individuals receive. Implications for practice and for future research are discussed. As for the legal scenario, physical attractiveness has been observed to produce a lenity bias effect i.e., the tendency to perceive and treat an attractive person in a benevolent or indulgent way (Griffin & Langlois, 2006). Furthermore, a study of mock jurors who appraised the criminality of attractive and unattractive defendants found that jurors tended to find unattractive defendants more guilty than attractive ones (Patry, 2008). This finding corroborates the halo effect and personality theory (Kelly, 1955) that sustain our initial perception of features influences the perception of later ones. Influence of prototypicality on the appraisal of criminality According to prototype theory (Rosch, 1975), the more features and attributes an item has in common with a prototype, the more the item is judged to be prototypical of a category. Russell and Melillo (2006) have applied prototype theory to the forensic contexts by examining how the defendant´s prototypical attributes (i.e., the degree to which an individual fits the prototype of a battered woman) influenced jury verdicts. The characteristics used to define the defendant´s prototypicality or non-prototypicality were physical characteristics such as physical age or demeanour; social characteristics as social network, number of children, employment status, or dependency on husband’s 45 182 A. Herrera et al. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 2012, 4(2): 179-196 income; behavioural characteristics as withdrawn, timid, and justifying her husband´s aggressive behaviour; psychological characteristics such as feeling guilty, confused, frightened, and so forth. The results of this study corroborate the prototype effect on jury verdicts i.e., an attractive/non-prototypical battered woman who dared to challenge her husband tended to be convicted of manslaughter. In comparison, a passive prototypical battered woman who was afraid of challenging her husband tended to be found not guilty on the grounds of legitimate self-defence. Expósito and Herrera (2009) found that batterers were attributed more typically masculine characteristics than victims, and victims were attributed more typically feminine characteristics. Consequently, victims of gender violence are portrayed by typically feminine characteristics, to such an extent that the legal definition itself is almost identical to the prototypical standards defining battered women (Walker, 2009). Terrance, Plumm, and Thomas´ (2011) study on the relationship between the victim´s gender and perceptions of gender violence showed that when the gender of the victim fitted the prototype of a victim of gender violence i.e., a woman, they were more positively perceived than male victims. Moreover, the further the defendant accused of killing her husband moved away from jurors' beliefs of what a battered woman should be, the harsher their verdicts became (Terrance & Matheson, 2003). The analysis of the psychosocial factors (beliefs, mental schemata, stereotypes) involved in decision-making has revealed difference in the way juries evaluated “typical” victims of battery in contrast to “atypical” victims. Thus, juror´s preconceptions regarding the behaviour considered to be “normal” in cases of intimate partner violence influenced the verdict i.e., they conferred greater credibility to a “typical” victim´s testimony than to the testimony of an “atypical” victim (Bollingmo et al., 2008; Klippenstine & Schuller, 2012). Furthermore, beliefs and attitudes towards gender violence are variables that have been found to influence judgement making and mediate the response to incidents of intimate partner violence (Gracia, García, & Lila, 2009). In addition, Valor-Segura, Expósito, and Moya (2008) have observed that traditional attitudes to gender were linked to a greater tendency to blame the victims of gender violence. Ferrer, Bosch, Ramis, Torres, and Navarro (2006) analysis of the beliefs and attitudes of students (both boys and girls), and young males who had received no training or coaching regarding gender violence found that the latter held attitudes and beliefs that were more tolerant of gender violence. 45 Prototypicality and attractiveness 183 The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 2012, 4(2): 179-196 One of the variables undeniably influencing the response to intimate partner violence is ideology concerning gender and gender roles i.e., attitudes towards the roles and responsibilities regarded to be appropriate for men and women, and beliefs about the relationship between both (Moya, 2003, p. 9). Recent theories have reconceptualised the traditional view of sexism that reinforces traditional gender roles with the notion of ambivalent sexism that has two interrelated sub-components: hostile sexism and benevolent sexism that also serve to propagate patriarchal dominance and social structures (Expósito, Moya, & Glick, 1998; Glick & Fiske, 1996). Expósito, Herrera, Moya, and Glick (2010) found that benevolently sexist women may embrace traditional gender roles in part to avoid antagonizing their intimate male partners, which ultimately perpetuates the male-dominant status quo. Moreover, gender violence was associated more with sexist descriptions of men than with non-sexist descriptions of men. The ideological variable that best predicted the tendency to blame the victims of gender violence was hostile sexism (Cohn, Dupuis, & Brown, 2009; Durán, Moya, Mejías, & Viki, 2010; Valor-Segura, Expósito, & Moya, 2011). Bearing in mind the findings of current research, a field study was carried out to assess the effect of the defendant´s prototypicality and attractiveness, and the mediating effects of ideological variables (sexist beliefs) on the appraisal of criminality in a mock trial of a female defendant accused of killing her husband, who pleaded legitimate-self defence in response to her aggressor. Succinctly, the following hypotheses were assessed: a) A defendant attractiveness effect was expected on the appraisal of criminality i.e., attractive victims would be perceived as more credible, less responsible, and less in control of the situation than unattractive victims. b) A defendant prototypicality effect was expected on the appraisal of criminality i.e., a prototypical battered woman would be perceived as more credible, less responsible, and less in control of the situation than a defendant who did not fit the standard prototype of a battered woman. c) A hostile sexism effect was expected to mediate the relationship between the defendant´s prototypicality and the control of the situation. 45 184 A. Herrera et al. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 2012, 4(2): 179-196 Method Participants The sample consisted of 169 police officers (153 men and 16 women) from different police stations nationwide, age range 21 to 60 years, mean age 33.35 years (SEM = .72). The police officers participating in this study belonged to the Spanish National or Local Police Force. A total of 42.6% of the police officers were stationed in Seville, 29.6% in Santiago de Compostela, 13% in Malaga, 10% in Almeria, and 4.7% in Madrid. Procedure and experimental design The sample was obtained through incidental sampling of police stations in the Spanish cities of Seville, Santiago de Compostela, Malaga, Almeria, and Madrid. Participants freely volunteered and were assured their data would remain anonymous and confidential. Participants were randomly assigned (i.e., were rotated in all four experimental conditions), and a total of 169 questionnaires were administered in alternate order i.e., almost 50% of the participants (n = 85) were first administered the written description of a trial followed by the appraisal of the defendant´s criminality before undergoing ideological assessment. Alternatively, the remaining sample underwent ideological assessment prior to the written description of a trial followed by the appraisal of the defendant´s criminality. Of the 169 participants, 34 completed the non-prototypical-unattractive condition, 43 the non-prototypical-attractive condition, 43 the prototypical-unattractive condition, and 49 the prototypical-attractive condition questionnaires. Two independent variables were manipulated while participants read the written recreation of a simulated trial of a battered woman who had murdered her husband, and pleaded legitimate self-defence in response to her aggressor. Participants were asked to perform the role of the jury, read the case, and complete the questionnaire. A 2 (defendant attractiveness: attractive vs. unattractive) X 2 (defendant prototypicality: prototypical vs. non-prototypical) full factorial design was carried out to assess the effects on the evaluation of criminality (credibility, responsibility, and controllability). In addition, the mediating effect of hostile sexism on the relationship 45 Prototypicality and attractiveness 185 The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 2012, 4(2): 179-196 between prototypicality and control of the situation was assessed. The design sensitivity analysis of the sample of 169 police officers revealed the probability of detecting (1-β) significant differences (α < .05) for a medium effect size was 99.99%. Material and measures A written recreation of a mock trial of a battered woman who had killed her husband, and pleaded legitimate self-defence in response to her aggressor was manipulated by the following experimental conditions: a) prototypicality (defendant is described as a prototype of a battered woman vs. the defendant is described as a nonprototype of a battered woman); and b) physical attractiveness (the defendant is described as an attractive woman vs. the defendant being described as an unattractive woman). The descriptions of the defendant as prototypical or non-prototypical of a battered woman were based on the characteristics outlined in the “battered woman syndrome” (Walker, 2009). The prototypical battered woman was described as follows: María is a 36-year old housewife with two children (6 and 3-year old) who has been married for 10 years. During the trial, María is described as wearing sun glasses that hide her face, poor personal appearance and dress, and is timid in answering to the judge´s or lawyer´s questions. The non-prototypical battered woman was described as follows: María is a financial consultant of a leading company; she has no children, and has been married for ten years. During the trial, María is described as a well-dressed fashion conscious woman, calm and resolute in her interactions with the judge and lawyers. The physical attractiveness variable was defined using the facial features described in the literature for defining an attractive woman i.e., large eyes, small chin and nose, prominent cheeks and thick lips (Cunningham, 1986; Cunningham, Roberts, Barbee, Druen, & Wu, 1995; Johnston & Franklin, 1993). 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The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 14, 195-206. doi: 10.5209/rev_SJOP.2011.v14.n1.17 Walker, L. E. A. (2009). The battered woman syndrome. New York, NY: Springer. 45 Instructions Presentation The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, the Official Journal of the Sociedad Española de Psicología Jurídica y Forense, publishes empirical articles, theoretical studies and focused reviews of topics dealing with psychology and law (e.g., legal decision making, eyewitness). Only original papers (not published or submitted elsewhere) will be published. Papers driven to both legal systems, inquisitorial and adversarial, will be welcome as well as papers based in concrete laws of a European country. Neither the Editors nor Publishers accept responsibility for the views or statements expressed by the authors. Paper submission Manuscripts should be submitted electronically to the Editors to the e-mail address of the journal ([email protected]). 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References (APA style). Tables and figures placed at the end of the paper or attached separately. 45 The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context ____________________________________________________________ CONTENTS Articles Serial effects of evidence on legal decision-making Raluca Enescu and André Kuhn 99 Family and socio-demographic risk factors for psychopathy among prison inmates Cirilo H. García, José Moral, Martha Frías, Juan A. Valdivia and Héctor L. Díaz 119 In search of a fast screening method for detecting the malingering of cognitive impairment Guadalupe Sánchez, Fernando Jiménez, Amada Ampudia and Vicente Merino 135 Therapeutic effects of a cognitive-behavioural treatment with juvenile offenders Santiago Redondo, Ana Martínez-Catena and Antonio Andrés-Pueyo 159 Is miss sympathy a credible defendant alleging intimate partner violence in a trial for murder? Antonio Herrera, Inmaculada Valor-Segura and Francisca Expósito 179 Volume 4 Number 2 July 2012 45