Linguistics and Ancient Western Linguistic Thought The Dialectic of Discontinuity and Continuity - - A Descriptive Comparative Study -

Journal for Educators,Teachers and Trainers JETT,Vol. 15(3); ISSN:1989-9572 176 ISSN1989–9572 DOI :10.47750/jett.2024.15.03.015 Linguistics and Ancient Western Linguistic Thought The Dialectic of Discontinuity and Continuity - - A Descriptive Comparative Study - Dr. Faiza Harizi Journal for Educators, Teachers and Trainers, Vol. 15 (3) https://jett.labosfor.com/ Date of revision: 05 2024 Date of Published: 09 2024 Dr. Faiza Harizi (2024). Linguistics and Ancient Western Linguistic Thought The Dialectic of Discontinuity and Continuity - A Descriptive Comparative Study Journal for Educators, Teachers and Trainers, Vol. 15(3).176-189 Journal for Educators,Teachers and Trainers JETT,Vol. 15(3); ISSN:1989-9572 177 Linguistics and Ancient Western Linguistic Thought The Dialectic of Discontinuity and Continuity - - A Descriptive Comparative Study - Dr. Faiza Harizi 1* 1: University Tipaza, -Algeria-, [email protected]. [email protected] Abstract: Modern linguistics is an independent field of study, with its own principles, methodologies, and epistemological and philosophical backgrounds that emerged in the early 19th century. There is an ongoing debate about whether this science is a continuation of ancient Western linguistic thought or a complete break from it, despite its significant linguistic contributions to the field. This study confirms that modern linguistics represents both a discontinuity and a continuity simultaneously. It is a discontinuity in terms of its methodologies and a continuity in terms of its subject matter, which is language. As such, the significance and status of this science in the field of linguistics are highlighted through its study, adoption, interest, and branching out. Keywords: Modern linguistics, historical, Indians, Greeks, comparative, discontinuity, continuity. Introduction Modern linguistics, as a contemporary scientific discipline, has revolutionized the field of linguistic research. It is an independent science with its methodologies, principles, subject matter, and prominent figures. It brought about fundamental changes in the field of linguistic studies that were prevalent at the time, along with all their constants, principles, and methodologies. However, despite all these advantages, this science did not emerge out of nowhere. There was a foundation and an initial basis for this science, grounded in ancient epistemological backgrounds of Western linguistic thought, which spurred its emergence as a novel and innovative science. It is important to emphasize that most sciences are viewed as accumulative knowledge resulting in a theory that establishes a new science. Therefore, linguistics did not emerge from a void but rather has roots in pre-existing thought that laid the groundwork for its development. This paper will address this issue, posing the following problem: Is linguistics both a discontinuity and a continuation of ancient Western linguistic thought? This problem branches into several questions that represent the research stages and its main elements: 1. What are the specific characteristics of linguistics as an independent science? 2. Is modern and contemporary linguistics a continuation of Western linguistic thought? 3. Is linguistics a discontinuity or does it have connections to pre-existing linguistic thought? 4. What is the link if it is a continuation, and what is the separation point if linguistics is a discontinuity from preexisting linguistic thought? Journal for Educators,Teachers and Trainers JETT,Vol. 15(3); ISSN:1989-9572 178 Modern Linguistics: 1. Definition of Linguistics: Linguistics is defined as "the scientific and objective study of linguistic phenomena, both universal and particular, through the specific languages of various peoples." (Hadj salah, 1974, p. 09) This means that it is a science that studies general and specific phenomena based on the principle of uncovering the structure of language at its various levels (phonetic, morphological, syntactic, and semantic) in an objective manner that emphasizes scientific rigor, free from subjectivity, or what is known as "researcher subjectivity." Linguistics focuses on the study of "language," hence the name linguistics. This focus stems from the subject matter it investigates, following a national principle, akin to what Ibn Jinni described in his discussion on the theories of language origin as "convention and agreement." Ferdinand de Saussure posits that "linguistics is a branch of semiology (Sémiologie), the general science of signs, which studies various systems of norms inherent in human activities to make sense of them, thereby categorizing them as signs. According to de Saussure, linguistics can serve as a living model for semiology because the arbitrary and conventional nature of signs in language is exceedingly clear and unambiguous." (Taleb El-Ibrahimi, 2000, p. 09) Ferdinand de Saussure is regarded as the legitimate founder of this science with its foundational principles, which served as the starting point for subsequent linguistic studies that are considered advancements in this field. He is also referred to by specialists as the "Father of Modern Linguistics" because the theories, ideas, and insights that emerged were based on his contributions, notably through his book "Course in General Linguistics," which is considered the true foundation of this science, published in 1916, three years after his death in 1913. In his perspective, he situates linguistics as a science by affirming that it is a branch of semiology, a field that has been of great interest to researchers and specialists in language, as it deals with signs and symbols in general. Linguistics focuses on linguistic signs and symbols because language, in most of its definitions, is recognized as a system of symbols and signs. Consequently, linguistics inherently concentrates on these linguistic signs and symbols, making it a subset of semiology. This field is significant due to its subject matter—language—in its semiotic dimension, serving as the best model and representative structure for the science of signs. Language signs possess an inherent existence for humans and are utilized in practical contexts. Linguistic signs are characterized by their clarity, avoiding the ambiguity and obscurity that often afflict nonlinguistic signs, which may not effectively convey meaning or support practical principles. Thus, linguistics is a specialized branch within the broader discipline of general semiology. 1.2 Subject Matter: The primary subject of this science, unlike others, is human language, which intersects with other terms and is often conflated with language and speech. These terms are part of the dichotomies introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure in defining and establishing the principles of this field. André Martinet posits that the subject is "language," which is "a communication tool analyzed through the spectrum of everything humans understand about the world, varying between communities. This analysis breaks down into units with semantic content and articulated sound, known as morphemes (Monème). This articulated sound further divides into distinctive and sequential units, known as phonemes (Phonème), whose quantity is pivotal in every language and varies in nature and relationships across different languages." (Martinet, p. 20) Language is considered a means of communication and the ultimate goal of language historically. André Martinet aligns with Ibn Jinni in one of his points in "Al-Khasais," where he defines language as the endpoint reached by Journal for Educators,Teachers and Trainers JETT,Vol. 15(3); ISSN:1989-9572 179 sound through a conventional national principle aimed at expressing purposes and needs that stir the soul according to a communicative principle. Ibn Jinni states: "Language is composed of sounds with which each community expresses their intentions." (Ibn Jinni, p. 33) Additionally, the systematic nature of language is its most significant characteristic, becoming more evident and reinforced through analysis. This reveals the levels and units that constitute it, from smaller units to larger ones. The principle of systematization is present in all areas of life surrounding humans. The results of this analysis yield meaningful and non-meaningful units (morphemes and phonemes), characterized by sequential relationships. The smallest units are limited within each national language, differing in number, nature, and partial and overall relationships among languages. For example, Arabic has 28 sounds, represented by letters, which are the smallest non-meaningful units. Following these are the words, which are the smallest meaningful units, known as morphemes (Monème) and phonemes (Phonème). Furthermore, phonetic, morphological, syntactic, and semantic relationships vary across languages. Language can be represented according to the following structure based on the principle that it is a system: KhaoulaTaleb El Ibrahimi views linguistics as "a scientific study of human language, specifically the general and common phenomenon among humans that is worthy of attention and study regardless of other circumstances that are not of interest to linguists. It deals with the secondary aspects of language governed by a complex and intricate phenomenon that can be approached from various perspectives: social, psychological, physiological, and physical. These aspects are studied by other sciences such as sociology, psychology, physiology, and acoustics." (Taleb El-Ibrahimi, 2000, p. 09) The subject of linguistics is human language or what is known as "tongue," which is a common human phenomenon distinguishing humanity from other creatures. The primary and ultimate concern of this science, from the perspective of linguists, is the study of language for its own sake, separate from its surroundings. However, language is a complex system influenced by several surrounding factors, and it includes secondary aspects that receive significant attention from linguists. Among these aspects are: - Social aspect. - Psychological aspect. - Physical aspect. Semantic Level Syntactic Level Morphological Level Phonetic Level Partial Relationships Complete Relationships Journal for Educators,Teachers and Trainers JETT,Vol. 15(3); ISSN:1989-9572 180 - Physiological aspect. Each of these aspects has its own science dedicated to its study and concern. Therefore, they are considered auxiliary branches to linguistics and are not within its primary concerns because they have sciences specializing in and studying them. However, these sciences have made effective contributions to linguistics. 1. The Relationship of Linguistics with Sociology: Linguistics is a social product and a social practice, with sociology being of paramount importance to this phenomenon. Therefore, it has a branch called "Sociolinguistics," which provides linguistics with everything related to language, dialects, and their relationship with the social environment based on the principle of community. Language, as it is known, is a social phenomenon rather than an individual one, and it is built upon social humility. 2. The Relationship of Linguistics with Psychology: Language, being the primary subject, expresses what is stirring within the psyche, and it is essential for behavior according to behaviorists. It is a psychological phenomenon. Behaviorist psychologists like Watson supported the idea manifested in the duality of mind/language. This idea was further solidified with Chomsky's generativetransformational theory, which introduced the concept of "linguistic competence," where language is seen as a natural ability that can be utilized to produce speech sequences reflecting psychological inclinations, thus being part of psychology. 3. Anthropology: Language is associated with culture in anthropology, where it is considered a manifestation of peoples' cultures. Through their language, their popular culture is revealed. Historically, there have been languages that have unveiled truths about peoples. It serves as a means of transmitting culture, conveying the traditions of those peoples, and expressing their intellectual situation. 4. Physics: There is an intersection between linguistics and physics in the study of sounds from a physical perspective, revealing their properties, transmission, and embodiment in the known linguistic form. 2. Ancient Western Linguistic Thought: Linguistic studies, which center on language as their subject, have roots in ancient times. There were serious attempts to explain, analyze, and determine the various origins of linguistic phenomena. Many peoples engaged in these studies long before the advent of modern linguistics. Ferdinand de Saussure acknowledged the seriousness of these ancient studies in several sections of his book and appreciated the efforts for the results they achieved, which later researchers and linguists considered significant. 2.1 Linguistic Thought among the Indians: Indian intellectual tradition, across various productions, often combined research with myth and fantasy, influenced by their mythical perspective. This is evident in the explanation and interpretation of their linguistic research. Ahmad Omar Al-Mukhtar notes, "The philosophical trends and the diversity of methodologies in India, along with the abundance of religious sects and the dominance of metaphysical aspects, and the attempt to explain hidden forces that make the world comprehensible to the limited human mind, tying scientific truths to these forces, all seem to have played a role in shaping the mythical aspect of Indian research and giving the Indian intellect a legendary tint. India is still seen as a land of charms and enchantments, closely associated with fantasy and magic. It was such during the era in question but also a beacon of knowledge and a field of profound and meticulous research." (Al-Mukhtar, 1972, p. 13) Journal for Educators,Teachers and Trainers JETT,Vol. 15(3); ISSN:1989-9572 181 Despite the dominant mythological tint in Indian linguistic research, their studies were marked by precision and originality. One researcher noted, "The discussion of ancient Indian efforts in linguistic research and their contribution to the Sanskrit language system impressed contemporaries with the Indian linguistic achievements. Some even try to validate subsequent studies by relying on the Indian model." (Naamani, 2009, p. 33) Indian linguistic research, in its various aspects—phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and lexical— was highly advanced for its time. Even contemporary linguistic researchers in the early 19th century modeled their work on the Indian research paradigm due to its advanced results and procedural mechanisms. These studies focused on their language, especially since their sacred text, the Vedas, was written in it. Particularly, their phonological research reached an elevated level of theoretical and practical sophistication, unlike other grammatical and lexical studies, which also achieved a high degree of quality but did not match the phonological focus. This focus was on performance, considered sacred in the recitation of the Vedas. 2.2 Linguistic Thought among the Greeks: The Greeks addressed significant linguistic issues that reflected their main interests and orientations in linguistic research. These included the nature of language and its progression into dialects, its construction across different human races and societies, and the concept of language as a national principle established and agreed upon for communication and comprehension. Unlike the Indians, Greek linguistic research was predominantly philosophical since most researchers in language were philosophers. The inquiry into the nature and origins of language was a prominent focus, alongside syntactic studies influenced by the Sophists, who emphasized the quality of composition in speech. Ancient linguistic research, particularly among the Greeks and Indians, was distinguished by its religious and philosophical aspects, irrespective of the achievements in Arabic linguistic studies that Western linguists later examined. The linguistic thought of the Indians and Greeks attracted the attention of modern linguists, creating a continuum between modern and ancient knowledge through cumulative intellectual progress. The advanced nature of Greek and Indian linguistic research is noted by many linguistic scholars, such as Abd al-Rahman al-Haj Saleh in his book "Research in Linguistics," and Ahmad Moumen in "Origins and Development," as well as Ahmad Omar al-Mukhtar, who explored the influence and impact between linguistic research in ancient civilizations and the Arab civilization. He noted the significant influence of Western linguistic research by the linguistic inquiries of other civilizations, notably the Indians and Greeks, which were admired and subsequently impacted modern research. The ancient linguistic research of the Greeks and Indians had a forward-looking perspective, evident in contemporary and modern linguistic research. This period, well-represented by the Greeks and Indians in terms of linguistic thought and advancement, laid an important foundation for subsequent intellectual phases, starting with the Sumerians, Akkadians, and Egyptians, and extending to later intellectual phases. Mustafa Ghaflan terms this period the "harmonious phase." (Ghulfan, 2010, p. 109) He states, "The harmonious phase is temporally defined as the period extending from the 10th century BCE to the mid-18th century. According to available documents and excavations, it encompasses all linguistic contributions known to the earliest human civilizations, starting with the Sumerians, Akkadians, Egyptians, Indians, through to the Greeks, Arabs, the Middle Ages, and the modern European Renaissance." (Ghulfan, 2010, p. 109) This phase achieved a balance between linguistic research and various other objectives, including religious, philosophical, and philological goals. 3. Western Linguistic Thought in the Pre-Modern Linguistics Era This phase is referred to by various names, including "Historical Linguistics," "Comparative Linguistics," "Comparative Philology," or the "Phase of Comparative Grammar." Some scholars divide it into two distinct phases: "Comparative Grammar" and "Historical Grammar." Chronologically, this period is situated in the 19th century. Journal for Educators,Teachers and Trainers JETT,Vol. 15(3); ISSN:1989-9572 182 A key feature of this era, and a significant linguistic milestone, was the discovery of Sanskrit and its relationship with European languages, particularly Latin and Greek. This discovery was a result of the Renaissance and Europe's openness to non-European cultures, spurred by its commercial and political expansion. In this paper, we will divide this phase into "Comparative Linguistics" and "Historical Linguistics," based on the characteristics prevalent in each period. This organization will provide a clearer framework by splitting the era into two phases: 3.1 Comparative Linguistics As previously mentioned, this phase was marked by the discovery of Sanskrit, the sacred language of the Indians, in which the Vedas were written. The Vedas are sacred texts that rely on specific phonetic, morphological, and syntactic performances. The phase began with a hypothesis that was later confirmed: Sanskrit shares a common origin with Latin and Greek. This discovery was articulated by William Jones in 1786, who applied scientific principles through comparative analysis of languages. Scholars in this phase focused on classifying languages into groups and families, identifying the Indo-European language family, which encompasses languages from India to Europe. This period represents a turning point in linguistic thought, particularly regarding the ancient Indian language, which belongs to one of the oldest human civilizations and is the language of their sacred texts, the Vedas. Sanskrit itself branches into "Old Sanskrit" and "Classical Sanskrit." The importance of this language is heightened by its close relationship with Latin and Greek in various linguistic aspects: phonetics, morphology, and syntax. From this point, comparative study began to take its course in linguistic thought under what is called "comparative criticism," or what later became known as philology, by verifying ancient texts with a primary focus on the written form rather than the spoken form. In this context, Jones asserts, "However ancient Sanskrit may be, it has a structure that is more perfect than Greek, more copious than Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either. The affinity of Sanskrit with both Greek and Latin is so strong that it could not possibly be the result of chance; indeed, it is so strong that it suggests a common source that no longer exists. To a lesser extent, one could also add Gothic and Celtic languages to this family." (Robbins, 1998, p. 224) This research perspective or intellectual framework served as the foundation and starting point for subsequent comparative linguistic research, carried out over different historical periods, to prove linguistic kinship and classify languages into families through in-depth studies of various linguistic forms in both the Indo-Latin and Indo-Greek families. Jones's work, built on the hypothesis of common origins, laid the groundwork for the more significant later phase in terms of both subject matter and methodology. This stage was generally characterized by a focus on the written word, particularly the sacred texts such as the Vedas, while neglecting the spoken aspect, which was seen as performance-based and not governed by the same rules as written language. Yet, it is the spoken form of language that holds primary importance. Among the prominent figures in the comparative approach to linguistic studies is Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829), who was the first to use and emphasize comparative grammar. One of his notable works embodying this approach is his essay on the language and philosophy of the Indians. In it, Schlegel states, "I am satisfied to point out the principles on which comparative grammar or a historical genealogical tree is based; that is, a true history of the formation of languages." (Sghlegel, p. 146) This highlights the essence of comparative linguistics, which involves comparing languages to identify differences and similarities, and this study is viewed with satisfaction given its focus. It seeks to uncover the foundational elements of these languages, thereby revealing their linguistic bases and groupings. Journal for Educators,Teachers and Trainers JETT,Vol. 15(3); ISSN:1989-9572 183 Significant contributions to the comparative approach in linguistic research include the work of Franz Bopp (17911869). In 1816, Bopp published his seminal work, "On the Conjugation System of Sanskrit in Comparison with those of Greek, Latin, Persian, and Germanic Languages." This work arose from the observation of similarities among various languages, leading Bopp to examine their grammatical systems with a focus on Greek, Latin, Persian, and Germanic languages in relation to Sanskrit. Bopp's analysis elucidated the systematic relationships among these languages, thereby contributing to the concept of linguistic families. His rigorous methodology established a scientific basis for demonstrating the kinship among ancient languages and comparing them with targeted languages through analysis and inference. This comparative phase paved the way for the subsequent historical linguistics phase. 3-2: Historical Linguistics Language is historically linked to human existence and has been present since humans first appeared. While language has always existed, the scientific study of it is relatively recent. Language embodies societies as a social phenomenon and is inherently human, distinguishing humans from other beings and creatures. Linguistics, as a discipline, represents a significant focus on language, taking into account its historical development and the changes in its various systems: phonetic, morphological, syntactic, and semantic. From this perspective, language grows and evolves like humans, undergoing changes and developments influenced by various circumstances and factors. Historical linguistics examines a single language through its evolution across different periods, from its origins to the present, to understand its history from the earliest times and the causes of its phonetic, lexical, grammatical, and semantic changes. Ferdinand de Saussure referred to this type of study as "diachronic linguistics," derived from Latin: "dia" means "through" and "chroni" means "time," hence the complete meaning of studying language through time. (Momen, 2005, p. 63) This phase represents a shift from the philosophical and speculative approach to a historical perspective, placing language in its appropriate context for study and thorough analysis. This phase is historically marked around 1875 or slightly earlier and is often referred to as "historical linguistics." It primarily employs a historical methodology, relying on historical analysis, interpretation, and inference based on field observations and the derivation of general laws through a historical lens. This historical perspective focuses on analyzing and interpreting phonetic changes, extracting both general and specific laws. Despite the distinctions between linguistic phases, a close relationship exists, particularly between the historical linguistics phase and the comparative linguistics phase. Nevertheless, this does not imply a complete separation, as the historical dimension was also present in comparative linguistics. Many pioneers of comparative linguistics emphasized the historical aspect in their work, such as Bopp, Schlegel, and Schleicher. Often, they are collectively referred to as "historical comparative linguistics" because of their shared methodological features, despite the primary focus of comparative linguistics on comparison and historical linguistics on the historical dimension based on comparative results. This phase differed with the transition from the comparative phase to the historical phase, encompassing several key features: - Influence of Darwinian Theory: This phase was influenced by Darwin's theory, reflected in the study of linguistic samples and their evolutionary developments. Journal for Educators,Teachers and Trainers JETT,Vol. 15(3); ISSN:1989-9572 184 - Emphasis on Time and Evolution: The phase highlighted the principle of time and the staged evolution of language, noting changes in each specific and defined time period, and recording various developments across successive periods. - Impact of Physics and Mechanics: The study was influenced by physics and mechanics, driven by the fascination of some linguists with mechanical physics, which posits that all natural changes and living organisms result from physical forces and their effects. Consequently, all general phenomena, including language, can only be explained through the deterministic laws of force and motion” (Momen, 2005, p. 67). This direct influence is evident in linguistic analyses across different time periods. - Comparative Methodology: The comparative method was employed due to its connections and methods of internal reconstruction and philology. -Building a Detailed Historical Record: There was a focus on constructing a detailed scientific history for each language through successive stages, with each stage representing a language profile, highlighting the influencing factors and aiding in creating this profile based on known scientific characteristics. This phase can be categorized within the pre-19th-century framework, encompassing linguistic thought from the Indians, Greeks, and comparative linguistics. This period is significant and belongs to the broad era preceding modern linguistics introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure, which revolutionized linguistic studies. It is based on "tracing linguistic phenomena across different eras and various locations to understand their development and uncover the different laws governing this evolution." (Talimat, p. 112) From this context, it is evident that the beginning of this study follows a historical trajectory within a specific geographical area where the language prevails. It involves diagnosing the changes that have affected this language over the specified historical periods and identifying the causes and factors that led to these changes, establishing the governing laws based on the achieved results. This research seeks to uncover the origins of the language, study its history, lineage, and affiliations, and explain the developments that occur through additions, deletions, or changes in phonetic, morphological, syntactic, and semantic contents. The historical methodology not only delves into these aspects but also explores the language's evolution, its life in societies, how it spreads, and the conditions influencing these processes. Among the pioneers who embedded these concepts in their studies, we find Rasmus Rask (1787-1832) in his work "The Affinities Between the Northern and Southern European Languages," where he examined the origins of Old Scandinavian or Icelandic. Other notable figures include Friedrich Schlegel, August Schleicher, August Fick, and Ferdinand de Saussure, who presented his historical studies titled "Memoir on the Primitive System of Vowels in Indo-European Languages" in 1878 and "Genitive Absolute in Sanskrit" in 1881. Additionally, Hermann Paul significantly advanced historical linguistics, asserting that "the only scientific method for studying language is the historical method." (monan, 1972, p. 13) The historical approach to linguistic reality became evident through subsequent works that emphasized the importance of historical studies in elucidating the history and significance of language. Among these, we find Antoine Meillet's "Comparative Method in Historical Linguistics." Alongside him, during the same period, was the American linguist WilliamDwight Whitney, who was keenly interested in Sanskrit and living languages. He maintained that, in many of his explanations regarding the origin and original group of languages, linguistics is not a natural science but a historical one. (monan, 1972, p. 17) These studies continued to carve their path amidst the burgeoning field of modern linguistics, with works dedicated to investigating the lifespan and history of languages across different eras according to their contexts. Among the prominent figures in this endeavor was Horace Hayman Wilson. Thus, the study bore fruit through the historical practice of language, yielding results from the research conducted by the aforementioned Western pioneers and others not mentioned here. These studies unveiled the history and evolution of languages over various ages. The focus of these studies was language itself, utilizing the historical