Alexis de Tocqueville : the traditionalist roots of democracy

Alexis de Tocque ille: The T adi ionalis Roo s o Democ acy Isid e MOLAS Uni e si a Au ònoma de Ba celona Wo king Pape n. 9 Ba celona 1990 Bo h he Ame ican and F ench Re olu ions wen beyond na ional bo de s and shook he wo ld. This was he beginning o a new age. As BALLANCHE said in he middle o he Res o a ion: "Nous sommes a i és à un âge c i ique de l'esp i humain, à une époque de in e de enou ellemen . La socié é ne epose plus su les mêmes bases, e les peuples on besoin d'ins i u ions qui soien en appo a ec leu s des inées u u es. Nous sommes semblables aux Is aéli es dans le dése ”1, he wo k o Alexis de TOCQUEVILLE (1808-1859) comes in o his con ex o p o ound change. He had been bo n in o a amily o No man a is oc acy, ela ed o MALESHERBES and CHATEAUBRIAND. The July Mona chy emo ed his s ock om powe and placed i in he anks o legi imism. A e his ip o he Uni ed S a es, he began his poli ical hough , encou aged by he implici desi e o o e his wo ld a p ospec o he u u e in he ace o he new libe al egime o bou geoisie and o icials. In 1835, when he was hi y, he published he i s olume o La Démoc a ie en Amé ique (D), which was a g ea success, unlike he second, which was mo e ambi ious and de ailed, published i e yea s la e . In sho , i led him o poli ical ac ion, ha was no e y spec acula , and ha le him wi h a ce ain eeling o disappoin men . A Membe o Pa liamen om 1839 un il 1851 o Valognes, whe e he li ed, he was no pa icula ly en husias ic abou he Republic and was elie ed when CAVAINGAC de ea ed he people o Pa is. Al hough he was no a membe o he commission ha d a ed he Cons i u ion in 1848, he did no manage o impose on i his main heo ies. Finally, in 1849, he became Fo eign Sec e a y unde BARROT, and emained in his posi ion o i e mon hs. The Coup d'E a by Louis Napoleon ended his poli ical ca ee . His c i ical commen s on he e olu iona y pe iod, collec ed in Sou eni s (S), w i en in e i emen in So en o, ha e a bi e ness esembling ha o MARX. In 1856, al eady away om ac i e poli ics, he p epa ed and published he i s pa o L'Ancien Régime e la Ré olu ion (AR), a s udy on he adi ional oo s o he F ench Re olu ion and on his majo subjec : he end o a is oc acy, he end o his wo ld. His wo k and his pe sonali y e lec o some ex en he inne con lic o a socially de ea ed pe son, as SCHMITT indica es2. This causes him o adop a emo e a i ude, om which he makes a p oposal o open up a cou se in he u u e o his wo ld. Fo his eason he can disassocia e himsel bo h om he my h o ope a ional democ acy and om his con ic ion o coun e - e olu iona y ideas. Acco ding o MAYER3, TOCQUEVILLE’s heo y is nei he ha o a libe al, no , as MOLNAR says4, ha o a coun e - e olu iona y. F om a p o ound axiological iewpoin , he cons uc s a democ a ic, scien i ic and p esc ip i e heo y. The esul howe e , is mo e adical han he one ha he himsel would willingly ha e been p epa ed o accep and, in pa icula , he one ha his po en ial ollowe s could assimila e. Mo e indeb ed o he me hod han o he ideas o MONTESQUIEU, c i ic o Physioc acy and o "li e a y poli ics", ha is o say o Illus a ion ( he ques ion "Quel F ançais s'a ise ai aujou d'hui d'éc i e les li es de DIDEROT ou dHELVETIUS?" is posed in AR 111, 2); and always ai h ul o PASCAL, he ag eed wi h STUART MILL in an a emp o make eedom and democ acy compa ible. The e was an impo an di e ence, howe e : he F ench hinke conside ed democ acy also (especially) as a social s a e. The di e ence be ween hem does no s em so much om he ac ha TOCQUEVILLE was a Whig and ha MILL was inclined owa ds F ench adicalism, as NEGRO main ains5, bu a he ha TOCQUEVILLE, pe haps unin en ionally, was capable o o mula ions ha we e close o Rousseau's se o heo ies. Pe haps wi hou CHATEAUBRIAND and wi hou he adi ionalis backg ound o his ideology, i would be impossible o unde s and he adicalism and scope o his idea o democ acy. This clea - hinking a is oc a , a poli ician wi hou ollowe s and ou o luck, de ised a heo y o democ acy ha has s ood he es o ime. Howe e , in his w i ings he was no en husias ic abou i , bu a he analyzed i s p o ound ends, p ecisely in o de o a oid hem. The key ha enables us o begin o unde s and TOCQUEVILLE's heo ies lies in he opposi ion be ween a is oc acy and democ acy. I is no jus a ma e o poli ical opposi ion be ween poli ical sys ems. A is oc acy and democ acy a e wo social s a es, wo ypes o socie y ha p eclude each o he . I is he e o e impossible o eso o mixed o ms. I a is oc acy is he "pe manen inequali y o classes" and democ acy is he "equali y o classes", he clash be ween he wo o hem places a socie y based on social inequali y in con on a ion wi h a socie y based on equali y. His o y shows us he di ec ion in which he con adic ion is esol ed. "Les peuples ch é iens me pa aissen o i de nos jou s un e ayan spec acle; le mou emen qui les empo e es déjà assez o pou qu'on ne puisse le suspend e, e il n'es pas enco e assez apide pou qu'on désespè e de le di ige : leu so es en e leu s mains; mais bien ô il leu échappe" (D In oduc ion). The democ a ic e olu ion i sel has des oyed he old a is oc a ic and eudal wo ld. A is oc a ic socie y is a an end and a new socie y is eme ging. This is his poin o depa u e. "L'a is oc a ie é ai déjà mo e quand j'ai commencé à i e e la démoc a ie n'exis ai poin enco e" (le e o Hen y REEVE, 22-111-1837). Democ acy is no he esul o an acciden , bu i s ems om he changes in he s uc u e o land owne ship. The la e los i s exclusi e cha ac e as a sou ce o powe , a he same ime as equali y was es ablished. E e y hing con i ms his end. "Mais oici les angs qui se con onden ; les ba iè es éle ées en e les hommes s'abaissen ; on di ise les domaines, le pou oi se pa age, les lumiè es se épanden , les in elligences s'égalisen ; l'é a social de ien démoc a ique, e l'empi e de la démoc a ie s'é abli en in paisiblemen dans les ins i u ions e dans les moeu s" (D In .). Mo eo e , all his happens because democ acy esponds o an i esis ible his o ical impulse. I is "le ai le plus con inu, le plus ancien e le plus pe manen que l'on connaisse dans l'his oi e" (D In .). The a i al o equali y o classes is p o iden ial: "Le dé eloppemen g aduel de l'égali é des condi ions es donc un ai p o iden iel, il en a les p incipaux ca ac è es: il es uni e sel, il es du able, il écahppe chaque jou à la puissance humaine; ous les é énemen s comme ous les hommes, se en à son dé eloppemen " (D In .). I appea s o be a p ocess desi ed by God. Howe e , le us no con use he allusion o P o idence wi h i s heo e ical use by he F ench coun e - e olu iona ies, in pa icula by DE BONALD. O cou se, TOCQUEVILLE was educa ed in a mona chic en i onmen , bu i is mo e likely ha his message, add essed o he people o his class who we e guided by legi imism, made him ein o ce his a gumen wi h a su plus o legi imacy, which could easily be isola ed om he mechanics o p og ess o he socie y he was desc ibing: he s uggle o a wide dis ibu ion o p ope y. The democ a ic e olu ion is nei he he wo k o he de il no a punishmen om hea en o he a ogance o humans who da ed o ques ion God. I is he esul o he c isis o eudalism and he sea ch o g ea e equali y o p ope y. Summing up all his ideas, he epea ed i a he end o his li e: "Tous les hommes de nos jou s son en aînés pa une o ce inconnue qu'on peu espé e égle e alen i , mais non ainc e, qui an ô les pousse doucemen e an ô les p écipi e e s la des uc ion de l'a is oc a ie" (AR P e ace). In sho , wo social s a es clash. A is oc acy ends. Democ acy, i s opponen , wins. This is he meaning o his o y. Howe e , le us no iden i y TOCQUEVILLE wi h p og essi ism ei he , as BURY sugges s6. Democ acy is no be e han a is oc acy; i is me ely he u u e. I is no he a ainmen o he kingdom o alues h ough human e o . This is he di e ence be ween him and he heo e icians o p og ess. He has no pa icula a ec ion o democ acy. He me ely con i ms i s ad ance, wi hou judging i : "Je n'ai même pas p é endu juge si la é olu ion sociale, don la ma che me semble i ésis ible, é ai a an ageuse ou unes e à l'humani é; j'ai admis ce e é olu ion comme un ai accompli ou p ê à s'accompli " (D In .). I is no a ques ion o discussing he me i o one o o he o mula, because i is no longe possible o choose be ween a is oc acy and democ acy. He said in a le e o Eugène STOFFELS (21–Il-1835): "J'ai p é endu leu démon e que, quelle que û leu opinion à ce éga d, il n'é ai plus emps de délibé e ; que la ques ion n'é ai poin de sa oi si l'on pou ai ob eni l'a is oc a ie ou la démoc a ie, mais si l'on au ai une socié é démoc a ique déso donnée e dép a ée, li ée à des u eu s éné iques ou cou bée sous un joug plus lou d que ous ceux qui on passé su les hommes depuis la chu e de l'Empi e omain". I is om his poin o iew ha we ha e o place TOCQUEVILLE's amous s a emen : "Il au une science poli ique nou elle à un monde ou nou eau" (D In .). I is a ques ion o unde s anding he new wo ld, in o de o be able o guide i . A heo e ical aspi a ion in which axiology is an incen i e o econside ing adi ional explana ions. This scien i ic desi e has been s ongly s essed by LIVELY7, FELDHOFF8 o HENNIS9, al hough he has been unde es ima ed as a scien is by James BRYCE10, PIERSON11 o VOSSLER12. Mo eo e , i is o ha eason ha , despi e he well-known connec ions o accen and me hod wi h MONTESQUIEU, he ela ionship wi h him is no ha o a ollowe . E e since ROYER-COLLARD p aised he i s olume o Democ acy in Ame ica, saying ha "no hing like his has appea ed since MONTESQUIEU" o since SAINTE-BEUVE ga e his opinion ha "his in e io i y is clea i one compa es him wi h MONTESQUIEU", he deba e on his scien i ic con en has con inued and his p i ileged connec ion wi h MONTESQUIEU has been ea i med om ARON13 and RICHTER14 o CHEVALLIER15 and LAMBERTI16. MAYER linked him wi h PASCAL and only sligh ly wi h MONTESQUIEU, and DIEZ DEL CORRAL17 s essed in pa icula he deb he owed o he philosophe PORT-ROYAL and o ROYER-COLLARD. In he end i was TOCQUEVILLE himsel who said: "Il y a ois hommes a ec lesquels je is ous les jou s un peu: c'es Pascal, Mon esquieu e Rousseau" (le e o Louis de KERGOLAY, 10-XI-1836). Howe e , socie y and he poli ical wo ld had been o e u ned, so ha his connec ion wi h MONTESQUIEU, al hough i wen beyond ha o he li e a y s yle o sub i les, as PIERSON claims, i was mo e in alues han in ideas. I could no be any o he way. His heo e ical pa adigm had o be ounded on o he bases, p ecisely because he aim is o explain a di e en eali y. TOCQUEVILLE alks om he new wo ld, om he eme ging capi alis socie y. The An h opological Concep We ha e seen how, o TOCQUEVILLE, class equali y is a de eloping eali y. This na u al end, owing o he ac ha i is so inexo able, mus come om di ine will, he meaning o which always escapes human beings. We may disco e i , bu we canno unde s and i in i s deepes sense. No a ionali y he e o e, can be known on his ma e . I is only because o i ha a pe son pa icipa es wi h his ee will. This pe son is no in himsel ei he good o bad. He is nei he a wol , no a peace ul p ope y owne , no a noble sa age. Man is a mix u e o posi i e and nega i e o ces. "Tu sais que sans ê e plus dé aché qu'un au e de la bê e, j'ado e l'ange e que je oud ais à ou p ix le oi p édomine . Je me a aille donc la ê e sans cesse pou décou i , s'il n'y au ai pas en e ces deux ex êmes, un chemin moyen où l'humani é pû se eni e qui ne conduisi ni à Héliogabale ni à Sain Jé ome; ca je me iens pou assu é qu'on n'en aîne a jamais le g os des hommes e s l'un ni e s l'au e, e moins enco e e s le second que e s le p emie " (le e o Louis de KERGOLAY, 5- VIII-1836). Men a e nei he e y good no e y bad; hey a e a mix u e o good and e il. They li e in pe manen ension be ween one pole and he o he . This pe manen dualis ic cha ac e o human na u e, which excludes he abili y o achie e pe ec ion, is uled by ins inc and by a . Ins inc ca ies ou he end o his o y. The a o he spi i egula es and mode a es wha is bad in he ins inc and keeps he pe son on an accep able, albei uns able, mo al plane. Only om he supposi ion o con lic as being pe manen can he e a ise a mo al balance be ween ins inc and a , be ween democ acy and eedom, be ween Heliogabalus and Sain Je ome. A di icul and p eca ious balance. A balance ha ins i u ions, laws, and in pa icula cus oms can help o uphold. The pe son is mo i a ed by he sea ch o ma e ial well-being and a le eling o p ope y. This is his ins inc . We a e a om he man who maximizes u ili y in a con lic ing socie y. Social con lic a ises om he s uggle o equali y. Howe e , a democ a ic socie y is capable o li ing as an in eg a ed uni , in a scheme belonging mo e o LOCKE and JEFFERSON han o MADISON. We ha e, hen, a pe son who ac s agains p i ileges om he desi e o ins inc o equali y a he han om goodness, egoism, o jus ice. A pe son who ac s as a "homo economicus", always looking o he le eling o p ope y, because his is he hea o equali y. How does his pe son ela e o o he s? This al eady comes om na u e, no only om he social s a e shaped by his o y and by esponsible will. "L'é a social es o dinai emen le p odui d'un ai , quelque ois des lois, le plus sou en de ces deux causes éunies; mais une ois qu'il exis e, on peu le considé e lui-même la cause p emiè e de la plupa des lois, des cou umes e des idées qui èglen la condui e des na ions... Pou connaî e la législa ion e les moeu s d'un peuple, il au donc commence pa é udie son é a social" (D 1,3). TOCQUEVILLE, wi h his ambi alen mo al iew o he pe son, incapable o eaching pe ec ion, concei es he balance be ween ins inc and spi i as he key. He de ines a wo ld o he supe s uc u e ha is no explained by i sel , despi e ex ensi e alua ion o he indi idual subjec i e le el, bu ha inds i s a ional o igin in he social s a e on which i is based, which a he same ime is he esul o he social s uggle occu ing in his o y in he dispu e o e he dis ibu ion o p ope y. Democ acy as a Model TOCQUEVILLE has a passion o eedom, no equali y. Howe e , democ acy becomes he cen al heme o his hinking. Democ acy is a social s a e, which includes democ a ic go e nmen as one o i s ea u es. The e o e, i is a democ acy, which like he i s libe alism, e uses o be educed o he enclosu e o he S a e and he Law o co e he whole o socie y. In he well-known ph ase a he beginning o Democ acy in Ame ica he s a es ha class equali y (democ acy) " ai é end e son in luence o au-delà des moeu s poli iques e des lois, e ... il n'ob ien pas moins d'empi e su la socié é ci ile que su le gou e nemen " (D In .). Democ acy is no , he e o e, a p ocedu al echnique o choosing leade s o o decision-making, no only a legal and poli ical eali y, bu a social s a e, ha includes he poli ical wo ld as one pa , adap ed o he es . Don' we hea an echo o MONTESQUIEU's di ision be ween social s a e and poli ical s a e? Democ acy is a uni e sal eali y; i is no an Ame ican peculia i y. I will a i e in F ance: "Il me pa aî ho s de dou e que ô ou a d nous a i e ons, comme les Amé icains, à l'égali é p esque complè e des condi ions" (D In .). I e en pa ly bu i e e sibly exis s al eady. I is necessa y, he e o e, o unde s and i , in o de o egula e i and mode a e i . And o his eason TOCQUEVILLE builds up a scheme o ideas, om obse a ions made in he coun y whe e i al eady exis s. "Pa mi les peuples qui l'on ue s'opé e dans leu sein, j'ai che ché celui chez lequel elle a a ein le dé eloppemen le plus comple e le plus paisable" (D In .). The e o e, TOCQUEVILLE s udied democ acy in Ame ica and no Ame ican democ acy. He s udied democ acy in he S a e and in he new socie y, no in he p e-capi alis ci y and wo ld. F om obse a ion o he eali y, he hen made a model (which owes some o i s pa s o England, which he admi ed g ea ly, as FONTMICHEL18 and DRESCHER19 ha e s essed), which would enable him o gi e an o e all meaning o he eali y and o each one o i s pa s. SAINT-BEUVE c i icized him o he "lack o examples o illus a e o enli en some pages." Bu his is he co e o his me hod: o obse e, selec he ac s and in ellec ually cons uc a model ha can be used o p o ide an e en be e unde s anding o he ini ial hypo hesis: "En pa an des no ions que me ou nissai la socié é amé icaine e ançaise, j'ai oulu peind e les ai s géné aux des socié és démoc a iques don aucun comple modèle n'exis e enco e" (le e o J. STUART MILL, 18-X-1840). Ame ican democ acy is no he model, bu om i , one can cons uc a heo e ical model, ha makes i possible o unde s and he whole o he democ a ic eali y. His o y is no longe a bag ull o examples; i is a de elopmen ha mus be unde s ood in i s change. He did no in end, hen, wi h he na u al law concep s o a ionalism and he ecou se o a p e-ci il s a e o jus i y Socie y o he S a e. Nei he did he adop he B i ish U ili a ianism o he age. Bu e en less was he a adical empi icis . On his ack, he was ollowing in he s eps o MONTESQUIEU, in conside ing obse a ion and his o y o be he basic ools o scien i ic easoning. Al hough in his case, i was a his o y ha was di ided in o pe iods by social s a es and by an obse a ion ha , exp essed by eason, helped o cons uc a heo e ical model: democ acy is he social s a e o a single class, ha b ings wi h i a cohe en democ a ic poli ical S a e. The e o e, a new poli ical science mus be cons uc ed. The e mus be a new wo ld. Thus, his me hod was nei he his o ical, no compa a i e ( he objec o his s udy was no en i ely clea ), no legal (democ acy is a whole), no philosophical (i is necessa y o unde s and wha i will be). He cons uc ed an o e all heo e ical model o democ acy, om an in e p e a ion o his o y, based on he s uggle o equali y as he d i ing o ce, and on he obse a ion o a case, so as o be able, om scien i ic knowledge, o egula e and mode a e human ins inc s and o be able o es ablish an in eg a ed socie y based on eedom. Social Classes and he Democ a ic Re olu ion. TOCQUEVILLE concei ed democ acy as a social s a e, a necessa y assump ion o poli ical democ acy, and hough , as well as JEFFERSON, ha democ acy equi ed people ei he economically sel -su icien , owne s, o who could become so. As LASKI s a ed, "he no iced ha p ope y p i ileges we e con adic o y wi h popula so e eign y"20. The many exis en si ua ions ela ing p ope y a icula e he mos eliable human g oups in communi y: he social classes. "Je pa le des classes, elles seules doi en occupe l'his oi e" (AR 11,12). Toge he wi h a wide endency o F ench con empo a y his o iog aphy, o TOCQUEVILLE he subjec s o His o y a e classes. These classes mo e a ound he main con lic : he unequal di ision o ichness, and, especially, o p ope y. He epea edly quo es h ee o hem (al hough he o en blends whe he di iding o applying epi he s o hem): a is oc acy o uppe classes, including nobili y; bou geoisie o middle class; and he people. These classes igh each o he in many con lic s ha each he highes le el in he al e a ion o he social s a e. This s uggle can become global: "Le ie s é a e la noblesse é aien en emêlés su le même sol; mais ils y o maien comme deux na ions dis inc es qui, i an sous les mêmes lois, es aien cependan é angè es l'une à l'au e" (E a social e poli ique de la F ance a an e depuis 1789, 1). In his con ex o class s uggle, e olu ions occu . O in TOCQUEVILLE's wo ds, democ a ic e olu ion. He was no in a o o poli ical e olu ion. His pe sonal de elopmen and his w i ings a e wi ness o ha . E en his amily backg ound sepa a ed him om hem. Hadn' his g ea -g and a he MALESHERBES died, oge he wi h his daugh e and his son-in-law, on he sca old o ha ing de ended Louis XVI du ing he Con en ion? We en' his pa en s sa ed om he same a e hanks o 9 The mido ? Almos ce ainly, his amily and he social sphe e in which he was b ough up did no hink kindly o he Re olu ion. Bu he coming o democ acy is a e olu ion, which o e u ns he a is oc a ic socie y. In his i s book, he is ca ego ical: democ acy is e olu ion. Bu in 1836, he appea s o so en he idea: "Tou ce que la Ré olu ion a ai se û ai , je n'en dou e pas, sans elle; ell n'a é é qu'un p océdé iolen e apide à qu'on l'exe ce dans une mona chie ou dans une épublique, je dis: là es le ge me de la y annie, e je che che à alle i e sous d'au es lois" (D I,2,Vll). The isk o y anny, by all o by he majo i y, means he need o in oduce he legi imacy o he mino i y and he limi a ion o he manda e a ising om popula so e eign y, om he law. The b ake on y anny is he igh no o be equal. I consis s in limi ing he law o he majo i y oo. Democ acy, as he esul o he desi e o equali y, leads o he dange o conside ing any di e ence as inequali y and o c ea ing he desi e no o be di e en . The igh o be di e en is he c i e ion o eedom ha p e en s majo i y ule om degene a ing in o y anny, and popula so e eign y om esul ing in despo ism. Since he opinion o a pe son abou he common in e es is an exp ession o his own p i a e in e es , all ha exis a e majo i y p i a e in e es s. The esul o his, on one hand, is ha hey all ha e an equal igh o be p o ec ed, and on he o he hand, ha co up ion ( he p edominance o p i a e in e es in public li e) con inues o be a pe manen isk. The e o e, he exe cise o legisla i e powe should be limi ed. One o TOCQUEVILLE’s conce ns, as i was o he ounding a he s, was o a oid he y anny o law, o he Legisla u e. B) Indi idualism is he o he possible g ea e il o democ acy. I we ela e him o ROUSSEAU, we can unde s and, as HENNIS asse s, ha "wha mos in e es ed TOCQUEVILLE h oughou his wo k was an a emp o s op he adical sepa a ion be ween he human being and he ci izen". O in o he wo ds, he educ ion o he pe son o a p i a e pe son. O cou se, his idea is linked o ROUSSEAU, bu also o he adi ionalism ha e uses o accep he di ision be ween Socie y and S a e, be ween p i a e and public. The sea ch o he euni ica ion o he communi y, and o man, is p esen bo h in adi ionalism and in adical democ acy, in hei c i icisms o he Libe al S a e. TOCQUEVILLE sees in indi idualism a ice ha unde mines he collec i e li e, bu ha also des oys he pe son. Pe haps because undamen ally he is no sea ching o bou geois eedom agains absolu ism, bu eedom o he ci izen, wi h he aim o s eng hening he cohesion and solida i y o he social body, ha a e upse by class ha ed and s uggle. F eedom, Equali y, … Isn' Solida i y he classical name o F a e ni y? Indi idualism is no egoism. This is "un sen imen é lechi e paisible qui dispose chaque ci oyen à s'isole de la masse de ses semblables e à se e i e à l'éca a ec sa amille e ses amis; de elle so e que ap ès s'ê e ainsi c éé une pe i e socié é à son usage, il abandonne olon ie s la g ande socié é à elle- même" (D II,2,II). This is no an asse ion o indi iduali y, bu cu s o a la ge pa o i : he in e es in public a ai s. Egoism kills he ci izen in he hea o he indi idual. "Ta i ... la sou ce des e us publiques" (D II). Democ acy " amène (man) sans cesse e s lui seul e menace de le en e me en in ou en ie dans la soli ude de son p ope coeu " (D II,2JI). Isn' a c owd o soli a y people a isk o mass democ acy? Indi idualism de i es om he passion o equali y, which c ea es con o mi y and passi eness when man's well being is gua an eed. Then he e a ises "une oule innomb able d'hommes semblables e égaux, qui ou nen sans epos su eux-mêmes pou se p ocu e les pe i s e ulgai es plaisi s don ils emplissen leu âme" (le e o Hen y REEVE, 22-111-1837). This is he basis o despo ism, ha "en ixan ... les ci oyens dans l'en ance .... pou oi à leu sécu i é, p é oi e assu e leu s besoins,... e édui chaque na ion à n'ê e plus qu'un oupeau d'animaux imides e indus ieux don le gou e nemen es le be ge " (D II). This led POLIN o asse ha o TOCQUEVILLE " he democ a ic socie y canno be a communi y bu only a pe manen e ocable con ac , a coali ion o he majo i y agains some, a disguised o m o s uggle o all agains all, only lessened by he uni e saliza ion o bene i s". This is a Hobbesian s a e o na u e, which su i es while he e is s uggle o equali y, bu which, as man app oaches i , sees i s membe s disband and become isola ed in he S a e’s hands. I is pe haps o his eason ha MANENT25 was able o asse ha he enemies o democ acy a e also "i s excessi e o immode a e iends". F eedom as a Remedy F eedom is needed o mode a e and egula e he bad aspec s o democ acy. "Je dis que, pou comba e les maux que l'égali é peu p odui e, il n'y a qu'un emède e icace: c'es la libe é poli ique" (D II,2,IV). This eedom mus be shown bo h in he S a e and in Socie y. A) As ega ds he S a e, we ha e al eady said ha eedom should di ide powe , h ough ho izon al powe sha ing (decen aliza ion) and di ision o powe s. 1. The main aim o decen aliza ion, in pa icula ede alism and municipal sel -go e nmen , is o make solida i y possible. Once mo e TOCQUEVILLE does no ag ee wi h libe alism. He says: "Il y a deux moyens de diminue la o ce de l'au o i é chez une na ion. Le p emie es d'a aibli le pou oi dans son p incipe même,en ô an à la socié é le d oi ou la acul é de se dé end e en ce ains cas: a aibli l'au o i é de ce e maniè e, c'es en géné al ce qu'on appelle en Eu ope onde la libe é" (D I,5). Bu "il es un second moyen de diminue l'ac ion de l'au o i é ... : di ise l'usage de ses o ces en e plusieu s mains... En pa agean ainsi l'au o i é, on end, il es ai, son ac ion moins i ésis ible e moins dange euse, mais on ne la dé ui poin " (D I,5). This is wha he p oposes: o decen alize powe . Bu he acknowledges ha "l'égali é suggé ai aux hommes la pensée d'un gou e nemen unique, uni o me e o ... C'es donc e s un gou e nemen de ce e espèce que enden les na ions de nos jou s" (D II,4,III). And he adds: "Pou ma pa , je ne sau ais conce oi qu'une na ion puisse i e ni su ou p ospé e sans une o e cen alisa ion gou e nemen ale" (D I, 1,V). In o de o esol e he p oblem, TOCQUEVILLE eso s o a dis inc ion be ween wo kinds o in e es s: "Ce ains in é ê s son communs à ou es les pa ies de la na ion... D'au es in é ê s son spéciaux à ce aines pa ies de la na ion" (D I,1,V). The cen aliza ion o his second kind o in e es s is wha kills eedom. Well now, who can de ine i , i no he majo i y? Wi hou u he speci ying he weak dis inc ion, he says ha he e a e g oups o e i o ially appoin ed in e es s, which a e exp essed by means o ede alism and local au onomy. "Sans ins i u ions communales, une na ion peu se donne un gou e nemen lib e, main elle n'a pas l'esp i de la libe é". This is, he says, a ma e o "si je puis m'exp ime ainsi, d'épa pille la puissance, a in d'in é esse plus de monde à la chose publique" (D I,1,V). Wouldn' he ag ee in his wi h PROUDHON and TAINE? Faced wi h he p esen , he poli ical a o eedom is equi ed o di ec his o y. "Je pense que, dans les siècles démoc a iques, qui on s'ou i , l'indépendance indi iduelle e les libe és locales se on oujou s un p odui de l'a . La cen alisa ion se a le gou e nemen na u el" (D II,4,III). 2. This di ision o powe is also speci ied in he adi ional di ision o powe s. "Supposez... un co ps législa i (di ided in o wo chambe s) de elle maniè e qu'il ep ésen e la majo i é sans ê e nécessai emen l'escla e de ses passions; un pou oi exécu i qui ai une o ce qui li soi p ope, e une puissance judiciai e indépenden e des deux au es pou oi s; ous au ez enco e un gou e nemen démoc a ique, mais il n'y au a p esque plus de chances pou la y annie" (D I,2,VII). In his scheme judicial Powe acqui es a undamen al cha ac e . "L'ex ension du pou oi judiciai e dans le monde poli ique doi donc ê e co éla i e à l'ex ension du pou oi élec i ' (D I,1,V), because " o me enco e une des plus puissan es ba iè es qu'on ai jamais éle ées con e la y annie des assemblées poli iques" (D I,1,VI). I is he g ea coun e balance o he legisla u e and he gua an ee ha he la e will submi o he Cons i u ion. Wasn' he e in his idea a sp inkling o MONTESQUIEU, and a ecollec ion o his passage h ough he F ench Magis acy? B) Howe e , ins i u ions a e no e e y hing, no a e laws. Feelings, belie s, ideas and cus oms, pa ly inna e and pa ly passed on h ough educa ion, p o ide he basic essence o socie ies and go e nmen s. Thus, he unde lines he impo ance o he subjec i e le el (as some Ame ican commen a o s ha e poin ed ou ), bu e en mo e o he social s a e. In any e en , he e is a non-poli ical co e in poli ics, ha always inally asse s i sel . "C'es donc éellemen le peuple qui di ige, e , quoique'la o me du gou e nemen soi ep ésen a i e, il es é iden que les opinions, les p éjuges, les in é ê s, e même les passions du peuple ne peu en ou e d'obs acles du ables qui les empêchen de se p odui dans la di ec ion jou naliè e de la socié é" (D 1,2,1). F eedom mus pene a e socie y, no only he ins i u ions; and plu alism mus become e iden in he S a e, bu i mus also exis in socie y. This plu alism, as he basic elemen o democ acy, has been aken up by many mode n au ho s ( om DAHL o ALMOND), and pa ly om LIPSET who explici ly acknowledges he deb 26. Social plu alism is ound speci ically in ci il associa ions in which he sees he undamen al sa egua d o democ acy, because hey c ea e pa icipa ion and bonds o solida i y. They a e he bes gua an ee agains unanimism. E en poli ical pa ies a e assessed, al hough TOCQUEVILLE does no all in o he nega i e iew o he age: "Us pa is son un mal inhé en aux gou e nemen s lib es" (D I,2,II). "De no e emps, la libe é d'associa ion es de enue une ga an ie nécessai e con e la y annie de la majo i é" (D II,4), he said, when in F ance he libe als we e subjec ing i o conside able legal es ic ion. "Pou que les hommes es en ci ilisés ou le de iennen , il au que pa mi eux l'a de s'associe se dé eloppe e se pe ec ionne dans le même appo que l'égali é des condi ions s'acc oî " (D II,2,V). These ci il associa ions, which a ose in o de o de end he mos a ied in e es s, con ine he S a e o i s own a ea, and o ge he bonds o he new public spi i . Ano he one o he ea u es o his li ing socie y is he eedom o he p ess, conside ed as he pilla o eedom o associa ion and he e o e he gua an ee o plu alism, al hough he wa ns ha i may lead o passi eness in hose who eel ha hei iews ha e al eady been exp essed. A u he basic aspec , b ough up by ROUSSEAU, is he conce n o educa ion as he c ea o and ansmi e o hese bonds, as a socializing ins umen . All his is ound speci ically in cus oms esul ing om he exe cise o eedom, unde s ood as 'mo es', ha s eng hen solida i y and social bonds, in wha we migh now call "ci ic cul u e," in a con inuous line om he idea o PASCAL, de i ed om MONTAIGNE, acco ding o which "cus om is ou na u e". I would be un ai no o make a special men ion o he place he a o ds o eligion. Among Ame icans "le espec de la eligion y es , a ses yeux, la plus g ande ga an ie de la s abili é de l'E a e de la sû e é des pa iculie s", says TOCQUEVILLE (AR III,2). Bu his is no a con empla i e eligion, emo e om he wo ld, bu an in eg al pa o ci il li e. Religion is always a b ake on egoism and he exclusi e sea ch o ma e ial well-being. I also s eng hens mode a ion: "Peu à peu le espec de la eligion péné a pa ou où les hommes a aien quelque chose à pe d e dans le déso de populai e, e l'inc eduli é dispa u , ou du moins se cacha, à mesu e que la peu des é olu ions se aisai oi " (AR III,2). The e o e, o him, eligion is undamen al in democ acy; i c ea es bonds and is a mode a ing in luence. "S'il se encon e pa mi les opinions d'un peuple démoc a ique quelques-unes de ces héo ies mal aisan es qui enden à ai e c oi e que ou pé i a ec le co ps, conside ez les hommes qui les p o essen comme les ennemis na u els de ce peuple" (D II,2,XV). Don' hese wo ds show some hing o he unanimis will, ha he said he ha ed? Isn’ he e e idence in all he eligious ' emolo' o some hing o CHATEAUBRIAND? O else, om ano he poin o iew, isn' i possible o see in his wo k a dis an ances o o he Ch is ian democ acies, in endea o ing o econcile democ acy and eligion? A long lis o schola s has shown, some imes somewha excessi ely, he place o eligion in his w i ings: LIVELY, ZUCKERT27 and GOLDSTEIN28. On he o he hand, BATTISTA29 ela es i o ci il e hics ha combines he libe al and eligious spi i , ZANFARINO30 s esses he iew o poli ics as pa o human spi i uali y, and BAGNOLI31 chooses o place i in he ield o he philosophy o democ acy. Because o TOCQUEVILLE, eligious belie s a e a he "mo al belie s, collec i e con ic ions in he sense o HUME's belie s," as DIEZ DEL CORRAL ecalls. Wi h his heo y o democ acy as a social and poli ical s a e, TOCQUEVILLE endea o s o ell his wo ld ha i should build democ acy (and no jus igh i o become esigned o i ). Fo ha eason, he d aws up a scien i ic heo y (and ules) and sugges s ha hey ake a chance on democ acy, on a classless, pa icipa ing socie y, wi h a democ a ic and limi ed go e nmen , one ha c ea es a new solida i y, which emo es he di ision be ween ci izen and p i a e indi idual. All ha wi h mode a ion, o de , eligion: and wi h eedom. F eedom TOCQUEVILLE is a democ a in spi i and a lo e o eedom a hea . Bu , as we ha e said, he is no a libe al: he is no an indi idualis , his heo y is no o a S a e as a p o ec o o p ope y, no does he a o he di ision be ween ci izen and p i a e indi idual, al hough i was seen in his way o yea s, by D'EICHTAL32, by Pie e MARCEL33 o by ORTEGA34, o example. I was no un il 1925 ha REDIER35, ully aking up again TOCQUEVILLE's own desc ip ion o himsel , desc ibed him as a "libé al d'une espèce nou elle". And inally, i was MAYER who b oke he adi ion by conside ing him, in ela ion o MAX WEBER, " he i s hinke who o mula es he p inciples o he age o mass democ acy". F eedom is he linchpin o TOCQUEVILLE's heo y o democ acy, and i jus i ies i sel : "Qui che che dans la libe é au e chose qu'elle-même es ai pou se i " (AR III,3). F om i de i es he solida i y and he bonds necessa y o keep he new socie y oge he . A eedom ha should go hand in hand wi h equali y. "Quoique les hommes ne puissen de eni absolumen égaux sans ê e en iè emen lib es, e que pa conséquen l'égali é, dans son deg é le plus ex ême, se con onde a ec la libe é, on es donc ondé à dis ingue l'une de l'au e" (D II,2,I). In ac , eedom has exis ed in a ious ages: i doesn' belong o any social s a e; no is i a dis inc i e ea u e o democ acy. Democ acy opposes a is oc acy. F eedom, despo ism. Bu he eedom ha in e es s him is ha o he u u e, as i is he only e ec i e emedy "pou comba e les maux que l'égali é peu p odui e" (D II,2,IV). Thus, "d'ap ès la no ion mode ne, la no ion democ a ique, e j'ose le di e la no ion jus e de la libe é, chaque homme, é an p ésumé a oi eçu de la na u e les lumiè es nécessai es pou se condui e, appo e en naissan un d oi égal e imp esc ip ible à i e indépenden de ses semblables, en ou ce qui n'a appo qu'à lui-même, e à égle comme il l'en end sa p ope des inée" (E a II). Wha "ce qui n'a appo qu'à lui-même" could be is ne e s a ed, bu in any case we should ag ee wi h LUCAS VERDU, who says ha o TOCQUEVILLE eedom necessa ily b ings he "independence o men among hemsel es o in ela ion o he S a e"36. Bu g adually, he also con empla es he dis ibu ion o social powe among ci izens, as a sign o he independence o will. I is no a ques ion o de ining LOCKE's libe y o p ope y owne s, his idea o libe y p esupposes a he ac i e libe y, pa icipa ion. I is no only a balance be ween he libe y o he ancien s and he libe y o he mode ns in he s yle o CONSTANT, bu a uni ied de ini ion o cu en libe y, which b ings bo h oge he in o one uni . Democ acy means pa icipa ion, h ough which social bonds, he new s uc u es o obedience, a e o ged. F om i , libe y mus be unde s ood as independence in wha "n'a appo qu'à lui-même". Libe y ha is "mode a e, o ganized, con olled by belie s, cus oms and laws means, he e o e, pa icipa ion in he collec i e li e, and also an a ea ha is ee om S a e ac ion. Libe y egula es and mode a es equali y, in a pe manen ension o balance. Heliogabalus and Sain Je ome coexis o make man in o a mo ally accep able being. Nei he good, no e il: accep able. A Plan o he Fu u e In a le e o STOFFELS on 24-07-1836, he w o e: "J'ai mon é e je con inue ai à mon e un goû i e aisonnable pou la libe é, ... mais en même emps je p o esse ai un si g and espec pou la jus ice, un sen imen si ai d'amou de Po de e des lois, un a achemen si p o ond e si aisonné pou la mo ale e les c oyances eligieuses, que je ne puis c oi e qu'on n'ape çoi e pas ne emen en moi un libé al d'une espèce nou elle e qu'on me con onde a ec le pa i des démoc a es de nos jou s”. His aim was o pu o wa d a p oposal o syn hesis be ween democ acy and adi ion, wi h eedom as he hinge, a eedom di e en om ha o he libe als. The e o e he cons uc s a heo y abou democ acy. I is necessa y o know he ine ias o his o y, because only hus will a esponsible ac ion be possible. "Les na ions de nos jou s ne sau aien ai e que dans leu sein les condi ions ne soien pas égales: mais il dépend d'elles que l'égali é les conduise à la se i ude ou à la libe é, aux lumiè es ou à la ba ba ie, à la p ospe i é ou aux misè es" (D II,4,VIII), he said a he end o his book on Democ acy. I canno be esis ed, bu he e is a choice o wha o m i should ake. TOCQUEVILLE has no eeling o democ acy, bu no only does he no dispu e i , he also p oposes i , al hough his desi e o i is a he weak. F om an a i ude simila o ha o PASCAL, he d aws up a "pa i" o democ acy, a necessa y wage , because e e y hing is clea (i a all) once he choice is made. I is a ques ion o con incing b oad sec o s o F ance, wi h no u u e unless hey open up o he new wo ld, o aise he lag o democ acy and eedom, a eedom ha includes he mos impo an opics o legi imism (local au onomies, eligion, o de , mode a ion, e c.). This is he axiological aim ha om analysis o he poli ical eali y he b ings in o ope a ion wi h a scien i ic me hod. Bu his con ibu ion o poli ical science appea s oday mo e closely linked o his wo h as an analys and builde o a model o democ acy. The immedia e and subjec i e aims ha s imula ed him a e o go en. "I don' know", SCHUMPETER ells us, "any be e book han Democ acy in Ame ica o aining onesel in he a o making his pa icula kind o poli ical analysis"37. The main hing is ha , in o de o ul ill his aim, TOCQUEVILLE e o mula ed a heo y o democ acy, o which he added elemen s aken bo h om adi ionalism and om he Ame ican and B i ish expe ience. Wouldn' he example o his la e coun y, as in MARX, help us o explain, a leas in pa , he complex modem heu is ic scheme o his anglophile a is oc a ? Could we unde s and all his ideas wi hou ecalling his adi ionalis backg ound? Th ough obse a ion, eason and his o y he o med a heo y wi h g ea inne cohe ence and wi h mo e con ic ion han passion. Democ acy was no seen as a pu ely poli ical mechanism, bu included a cohe en social base wi h i , in which powe was di ided and dis ibu ed in a socie y wi hou a is oc acies (wi hou na ions wi hin he na ion, wi hou classes); in which democ acy demanded a single-class, plu alis , pa icipa ing socie y held oge he by new bonds, a ising om libe y ha egula ed and mode a ed equali y. His p oposal wen beyond wha his social sphe e could accep , bu his scien i ic ambi ion led him o ou line a heo y o democ acy which lay on he oad o mode n democ acy and a new socie y. TOCQUEVILLE was conce ned abou lea ing aside he "choice" o F ance, and so he de ised a adical heo y ha es ablished in socie y he a ional oo o he poli ical wo ld, in which he concei ed democ acy as a uni ed, p og essi e and open eali y. Thus, i could no be con ined in p ese ules and ins i u ions. "Ce qu'on appelle les ins i u ions nécessai es ne son sou en que les ins i u ions auxquellles on es accou umé, e qu'en ma iè e de cons i u ion sociale, le champ du possible es bien plus as e que les hommes qui i en dans chaque socié é ne se l'imaginen " (S II,2). NOTES (1) BALLANCHE, Pie e Simon: Essai su les ins i u ions sociales. III. 1818. (2) SCHMITT, Ca l: "His o iog aphia in nuce: Alexis de Tocque ille", in Ex cap i a e salus. San iago de Compos ela, 1960. (3) MAYER, J. Pe e : Alexis de Tocque ille. A Biog aphical S udy in Poli ical Science. New Yo k, 1960. (4) MOLNAR, Thomas: The Coun e Re olu ion. (F ench ansla ion. Pa is, 1972). (5) NEGRO PAVON, Dalmacio: Libe alismo y socialismo. 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