The Rise and fall of the metropolitan authority

The Rise and Fall o he Me opoli an Au ho i y? L.J. SHARPE Nu ield College d'Ox o d Wo king Pape n.38 Ba celona 1991 In oduc ion Mos ad anced indus ial s a es since abou he ea ly 1950's ha e been aced wi h he p oblem o enla ging he uni s o hei local go e nmen sys ems in o de o cope, i s ly, wi h demog aphic change. Tha is o say, he conside able g ow h o u ban cen es well beyond he exis ing bounda ies o hei local go e nmen s. The second need o enla gemen is de i ed om he expansion o local go e nmen s' se ice esponsibili ies which has aised he issue o economies o scale and se ice ex e nali ies. Inc eased scale o local go e nmen s is pe cei ed as mee ing bo h se s o p oblems (1). The ex en o he esponse o local es uc u ing has a ied conside ably among Wes e n s a es om he Uni ed S a es, whe e i has been a i s mos modes , no o say non-exis en , o he Uni ed Kingdom whe e an almos manic zeal seems o ha e been ope a ing such ha i s local go e nmen s ha e been ans o med in o he bigges in he Wes e n wo ld (2). Some idea o he ex en o he di e ence be ween hese wo ex emes o local go e nmen mode niza ion can be de i ed om he ollowing able which co e s he pe iod in he 1970's when he UK unde ook majo changes. Today (1990) he di e ence be ween he wo sys ems will almos ce ainly be g ea e . Table1 Be ween hese wo ex emes he e is a wide ange o esponses which encompasses wo b oad endencies. In wha may be called he napoleonic g oup o Wes Eu opean s a es (Spain, F ance, I aly, Belgium) he local go e nmen s uc u e has been changed only minimally, and ins ead a new egional le el o go e nmen be ween he local go e nmen s uc u e pe se and he cen e has been inse ed (3). In he No h Eu opean g oup (Sweden, No way, Denma k, Wes Ge many), on he o he hand, he local go e nmen sys em has been ex ensi ely es uc u ed, no wi h qui e he e olu iona y abandon o he UK, bu ce ainly o a much g ea e ex en han in he napoleonic g oup, wi h he possible excep ion o Belgium. The Me opoli an Model So much o he b oad ends, wi hin hose ends he e exis s a special ype o mode niza ion, ha o he go e nmen o he la ge u ban agglome a ion, which will be he p inciple subjec o his pape (4). Such agglome a ions can ha e di e en o ms, bu his pape will be p incipally conce ned wi h he agglome a ion ha con ains one dominan cen e. As we shall see, he deg ee o es uc u ing o he go e nmen o he la ge agglome a ion can a y in p ac ice om he minimal a ea wide s uc u e o a highly elabo a e, en i ely new sys em, bu o he sake o con enience we will use he e m me opoli an, o me o, model o co e all o hem. This is jus i ied on he g ounds ha he essence o he change is he ecogni ion o he uni y o a leas he con inuously buil up a ea o he agglome a ion and ha his uni y is e lec ed in some o m by a ea-wide ins i u ions o a angemen s. The e m pu e me o model will be ese ed o he cases whe e no only is he e a ully- ledged elec ed a ea-wide en i y, bu a consciously designed second, lowe le el o smalle uni s as well. The a ionale o ea ing he con inuously buil up agglome a ion as a single en i y is de i ed om wo dis inc se s o assump ions (5), which we will explo e in g ea e de ail. Be o e we do, howe e , i mus be emphasized ha he case o c ea ing an a ea-wide au ho i y, o , indeed, any s uc u al change in local go e nmen , has been subjec o conside able c i icism, especially in he Uni ed S a es. B ie ly, such c i icism a gues ha small scale (i.e. he s a us quo) has special ad an ages o local go e nmen among which maybe no ed ha i main ains a quasi-ma ke , i.e. ha he exis ing agmen ed me opoli an a ea co esponds o a kind o public se ice indus y and compe i ion be ween local go e nmen s akes place as a consequence o which he ci izen gains much mo e han he loses by no ha ing an o e all au ho i y. Secondly, i is claimed, any me opoli an au ho i y will always ha e g ea di icul y agg ega ing consume p e e ences and de e mining app op ia e expendi u e le els and a he same ime a oid he pe ils o bu eauc a ic agg andisemen (6). So much o an i-me o heo y. We will now u n o he p o-me o heo ies and he i s and he mos widely acknowledged maybe called he ex e nali y p inciple. By his i is mean he p inciple ha local se ices should, as a as possible, be sel -con ained so ha hey a e paid o by he ci izens ha use hem. Fo a local go e nmen ha inds i sel because o u baniza ion imbedded in a con inuously buil up a ea such sel -con ainmen is no possible simply because he e is leakage, o ex e nali ies, o some local se ices which a e p o ided by he said local go e nmen bu "consumed" by ou side s. This p oblem is pa icula ly acu e in communica ions; o example, an a e ial oad unning h ough he said embedded local go e nmen and main ained by i will be mainly used by ou side s who en e on he oad a one end o i and lea e a he o he . In no sense can such a oad be de ined as being sel -con ained wi hin he local go e nmen . A simila ex e nali y will a ise o an unde g ound ailway sys em o unk sewe s. Equally, he embedded au ho i y can ne e e ec i ely exe cise he land use planning unc ion because he o igin, and pe haps he solu ion, o i s planning p oblems a e mo e han likely o be ou side i s ju isdic ion. In sho , mos o wha may be called in as uc u al se ices and especially communica ions may be deemed o be indi isible; ha is o say he can only be e ec i ely p o ided o o coo dina ed a he a ea-wide le el. The second logic, o a ionale, o c ea ing a single au ho i y o he whole o he u ban agglome a ion is de i ed om he endency o spa ial seg ega ion o social and occupa ional g oups wi hin he me opoli an a ea (7). Al hough he occupa ional s uc u e o he agglome a ion e lec s he needs o i s a ious indus ies, local go e nmen agmen a ion may mean (and may be in ended o mean) ha he highe income g oups wi hin he agglome a ion can a oid he cos o edis ibu i e se ices on behal o he lowe paid, al hough such g oups a e essen ial o he economic heal h o he agglome a ion. I should be no ed, howe e , ha he deg ee o class seg ega ion be ween he local go e nmen s wi hin a me opoli an a ea is likely o a y and in he US a leas , may be less han is o en assumed (8). Howe e , seg ega ion will ce ainly exis o some deg ee simply because high s a us subu bs a e mo e expensi e o li e in. A simila edis ibu i e p oblem may occu in ela ion o essen ial a ea-wide ins i u ional se ices p o ided in he cen al a ea o cen al business dis ic (CBD), bu used by people h oughou he me o a ea, such as, pa ks, e e ence lib a ies, museums, echnical colleges and so on. The e is a u he se o a ea-wide se ices ha he C.B.D. mus p o ide ha may be called acili a o y a he han ins i u ional. These include a ic managemen , police, access highways, and public anspo . Such se ices no only acili a e he ing ess and eg ess o ou side s o he ins i u ional se ices wi hin he C.B.D. jus lis ed, bu mo e impo an , hey make possible he diu nal lows o ou side s who wo k in he C.B.D. bu li e beyond he cen al ci y. A g ea deal o con o e sy su ounds his p oblem because i can be a gued ha whe eas i is ue ha he ou side s do no con ibu e di ec ly o he cos o C.B.D. se ices, ou side expendi u e while in he C.B.D. and he axable alues hey gene a e by wo king he e may compensa e and e en excede he bene i s hey ecei e om he C.B.D.’s a ea-wide unc ions whe he ins i u ional o acili a o y (9). One o he bes analyses o he issue by B ad o d and Oa es has concluded: 'Ou eading o he e idence sugges s ha subu ban exploi a ion o cen al ci ies in e p e ed as he ailu e o he subu bani es o bea hei ai sha e o he cos s o ci y se ices is ypically o mino quan i a i e impo ance' (10). Whe e e he ue balance o cos s and ad an ages lies, and ob iously ha balance mus a y om ci y o ci y, he e can be no doub ha e e y se ice ha is ans e ed o an o e all me o au ho i y coun e ac s hese maldis ibu ion p oblems because i can equalize on he se ice. I is possible ha he me opoli an-wide au ho i y may be c ea ed simply by ex ending he bounda y o he exis ing bu unde bounded co e ci y au ho i y. In his way he s uc u e o go e nmen is uni a y. Such. is he model applied in Oslo, and, in e ec , New Yo k Ci y a he ime i was c ea ed. I s e y uni a iness does no in any sense de ac om i being an example o he me opoli an model. I is no an op ion ha is easily open o he e y la ges ci ies, howe e , simply because o scale. Mo eo e , i is usually poli ically impossible o cen al ci ies o obli e a e and abso b he municipali ies immedia ely su ounding hem. Indeed, he almos uni e sal poli ical ac o he me opoli an a ea is some deg ee o an agonism be ween co e and pe iphe y. I ollows ha he mos popula me opoli an model is a wo le el, o ie , s uc u e. Some a gue ha he e is an inhe en logic in he wo ie model since i can esol e he e e nal con lic wi hin local go e nmen be ween he alues o pa icipa ion, access and local iden i y on he one hand and unc ional op imali y and p oduc ion e iciency on he o he . The lowe ie o he me o model can ca e o he i s se o alues and he op ie a ea-wide au ho i y he second (11). Wi hin he wo ie g oup a s uc u e which lea es he exis ing pa e n o municipali ies co e ing he agglome a ion in ac and me ely supe imposes he me opoli an au ho i y o e i is pe haps he mos popula o all. Examples o his ype include Ba celona, S ockholm, Mon eal and Copenhagen. The e a e a ew examples o a es uc u ed lowe ie , he pu e me o model, he bes known being he London me o (G.L.C.) and he six me opoli an sys ems ha we e c ea ed in o he pa s o England (Manches e , Bi mingham, Li e pool, Leeds, She ield and Newcas le), plus he mos celeb a ed example o all, he To on o me o. Wha e e s uc u al model is chosen, he e emains he p oblem o which unc ions a e o be alloca ed o he me o au ho i y i sel . The lis a ies conside ably om coun y o coun y, bu ideally i should include he ollowing high ex e nali y, high ixed cos , o indi isible unc ions: Mas e planning A e ial highways T a ic managemen Public anspo T unk sewe s and main d ainage Re use disposal Wa e supply Police Gene al u ili ies Gi en ha e e y unc ion going o he me o le el will usually mean a sub ac ion om he unc ions o he exis ing local au ho i ies, he ull complimen o such a ea-wide se ices is a ely, i e e , encoun e ed among exis ing me o au ho i ies. In some cases he a ea-wide adminis a ion o some o hese se ices may be achie ed by olun a y coope a ion among he exis ing local go e nmen s wi hou any o mal ans e o powe s o pe manen s uc u al change. This is ce ainly he p e e ed mode in he Uni ed S a es (12) which, as we ha e no ed, has been he leas keen o mode nize i s local go e nmen s uc u e. The e is, howe e , some e idence ha coope a i e a angemen s in U.S. me opoli an a eas ex ends well beyond he in as uc u e unc ions lis ed ea lie and includes social wel a e se ices as well (13). Possibly such a angemen s e lec he ela i ely g ea e agmen a ion o Ame ican me opoli an a eas. Volun a y ag eemen s by adjacen local go e nmen s in he u ban agglome a ions is popula in many coun ies since i is he leas di icul o c ea e poli ically and can always be wound up ai ly easily. Volun a y coope a ion o his kind was, o example, he p e e ed me hod o ackling a ea-wide p oblems, pa icula ly o planning in F ance and has pe sis ed in he o m o he communau és u bains despi e he c ea ion o egional go e nmen s in he ea ly 1980's (14). The Decline o he Me o Model I has become inc easingly clea du ing he 1980's ha he me o solu ion is p obably less popula han i was. This change pa ly e lec s no doub a gene al decline in he belie in go e nmen al ins i u ions ha has become ashionable in ha pe iod. O much g ea e impo ance, howe e , is likely o be he gene al e ea om planning ha a ose di ec ly as a esul o he end o he g ea pos -wa in e na ional ade boom in he mid-1970's. Wi h he onse o he ecession, slowe economic g ow h, and consequen ly slowe u ban g ow h, has mean he e is less need o plan o he e is simply less o plan; ye he need o plan - o c ea e a long- e m Mas e Plan o he u ban agglome a ion- is a he e y co e o he me o idea. I would be inaccu a e o link he decline on he impo ance o planning solely o economic causes. Placing planning a he pinnacle o u ban go e nmen was also a ashion in he 1960s. Gi en such ends, i is no wholly su p ising ha he me o idea has su e ed a decline. In some cases he decline has been such ha me o go e nmen s ha e ac ually been abolished. This is he case o Ba celona and Ro e dam whe e he me o go e nmen s we e wound up in he mid-1980's. Pe haps he mos amous aboli ion occu ed in he U.K. in 1985 when no only was he G ea e London Council abolished, bu so we e he 6 o he me o go e nmen s in England as well (15). The e is also some e idence ha he me o go e nmen s o Copenhagen and S ockholm ha e declined in p es ige (16). The ques ion is he e o e posed, is he me opoli an go e nmen idea on he way ou as an in e es ing expe imen ha was essen ially he p oduc o he g ea pos wa in e na ional ade boom and he planning e e o he 1960's and ea ly 1970's which accompanied i ? Ob iously imes and condi ions change and go e nmen al ins i u ions a e always likely o change o ma ch socie al changes. Howe e , i would be a shade p ema u e o w i e o he me o idea jus ye . In he Ba celona case poli ical an agonism seems o ha e played a majo pa in he aboli ion, especially be ween he socialis -con olled me o and he igh wing egional Gene ali a . I could also be a gued ha a me o o G ea e Ba celona became o some ex en less essen ial once he Gene ali a go in o i s s ide. The London aboli ion was e en mo e sui gene is o he e can be li le doub ha G.L.C. was abolished om poli ical spi e and he go e nmen which abolished i ba ely made he e o o moun e en a modes case o aboli ion (17). The e was also ce ainly no al e na i e o e all au ho i y o shoulde some o he asks o he s icken G.L.C. Indeed, he G.L.C. aboli ion is one o he mos biza e in he his o y o wes e n go e nmen o i lea es London, one o he majo ci ies o he wo ld, no simply wi hou a me opoli an au ho i y, bu wi hou any o e all local go e nmen a all. So local go e nmen in London is now in he hands o 32 London Bo oughs and he Ci y o London and no e en he London C.B.D. is acco ded any uni a y ea men ins i u ionally o i is di ided be ween no less han se en Bo oughs and he Ci y. The e is, howe e , a join commi ee o he C.B.D. Bo oughs (18). Two, hen, o ou h ee examples we e abolished o easons which ha e li le o do wi h he inhe en cha ac e o he me o model. Any w i e-o o he me o idea would also need o explain why he To on o me o sys em s ill seems o be lou ishing and has indeed ecen ly s eng hened he me o au ho i y by making i di ec ly elec ed. To To on o's con inued success would also ha e o be added Winnipeg, Tokyo and Pa is. I is e en possible o disce n an unin ended bu ne e heless eme gen me o au ho i y in he o m o he Mad id Au onomous Communi y which, like a social geog aphe 's d eam, emb aces mos o he ci y's commu e hin e land wi h oom o spa e o u u e g ow h. In o he wo ds, he pic u e he p esen day me o p esen s is a mixed one and i seems doub ul whe he his ambiguous posi ion will e e be e y di e en , o i is a go e nmen al design ha is augh wi h di icul ies ha will always make i s li e p oblema ic. The emainde o his essay will be de o ed o pin poin ing he mos salien o hese di icul ies. Inhe en P oblems o he Me o Model The i s and pe haps he mos ob ious p oblem is whe e should he me o's bounda ies be d awn? Acco ding o he ene s o he ex e nali y p inciple he bounda y should encompass he co e ci y's "in luence a ea". Bu i is one hing o assume ha such an a ea exis s in he abs ac ; i is qui e ano he o de ine i in a conc e e case. Take he example o London, he G.L.C. bounda y b oadly co esponded o he con inuously buil -up a ea which emb aced abou 7 million popula ion. In planning e ms i was no hing like wide enough o exploi he ad an ages o sel -con ainmen . To do so i needed o push ou he bounda y o co e wha is known as he London Me opoli an Region, bu ha would ha e doubled he G.L.C.'s popula ion and co e ed an a ea se en imes bigge han he G.L.C.'s a ea (19). E en he na owes bounda y ha would emo ely sa is y he socio-geog aphic de ini ion o he “ ue” London would ha e added ano he million popula ion o he G.L.C. The p oblem is ha sel -con ainmen o a me o o a majo ci y will en ail a e y la ge uni o go e nmen which would be decidedly emo e om i s ci izens and would aise he ques ion as o whe he i was local go e nmen in he accep ed sense. One way o minimizing his ou come is o keep he ange o unc ions o he me o as ew as possible; ha is o say o keep he ex en o ho izon al a ea in eg a ion o he minimum. i ollows, howe e , ha he lowe ie will ha e o ha e mo e unc ions, bu he e is a basic ange ha he me o mus e ain in o de o pe o m i s minimal asks and e ec coo dina ion, so some unc ions will ha e o be di ided be ween he wo le els. Tha is o say, he e will ha e o be some e ical unc ional disin eg a ion wi h all he cos s ha such di ision will necessa ily en ail. The essence hen o esol ing he me o bounda y p oblem is a ade-o be ween he ho izon al in eg a ion o a ea and he disin eg a ion o unc ions be ween he wo le els. The e can be no igh answe s o his ade-o and wha e e he balance ha is s uck, he sys em ha eme ges will be complex and s ill equi e high le els o in o mal coope a ion be ween uni s wi hin he sys em. The second nea -uni e sal p oblem o he me o model, especially he pu e me o model, may be an un esol able ension be ween he o iginal co e ci y and wha i may ega d as being he ups a me o, and in addi ion ension be ween he co e ci y and he inco po a ed ou e subu bs. The i s sou ce o ension will a ise because he co e ci y may iew he me o as a " i h wheel o he coach" in he sense ha he p oud, o me ly independen , ci y will now ha e o sha e i s name wi h he me o and lose some o i s independence o he unwan ed in e lope . In any case he co e ci y is likely o be he dominan local go e nmen in he me opoli an a ea. Fo example, o he se en majo me opoli an a eas in Canada only in wo does he cen al ci y no accoun o a leas 50 pe cen o he me opoli an a ea's popula ion. The p opo ions a e as ollows: Table2 The second sou ce o ension may be mo e se ious because o , i s ly, he equaliza ion p oblem. Almos ce ainly he co e will be o a di e en social class complexion om he subu bs. In Sou he n Eu ope he co e ci y will end o be mo e bou geois, in No he n Eu ope and in he “anglo” ad anced Wes e n s a es he co e will end o be mo e wo king class. Wha e e he class dis ibu ion, co e and pe iphe y will ha e di e en in e es s in so a as he c ea ion o he me o en ails edis ibu ion, and he con lic is likely o be all he g ea e in No he n Eu ope and in he U.S., Canada and Aus alia because, unlike Sou he n Eu ope, he co e ci y being ela i ely poo e will ha e a s onge case o passing on some o he cos s o he p o ision o cen al ci y public unc ions o he pe iphe al subu bs. These subu bs may also esen con ibu ing o he bill o he usually highe gene al cos s o cen al ci ies (20). As one obse e has summa ized he posi ion o he US, 'In 1970 cen al ci ies spen 25 pe cen mo e pe capi a on go e nmen se ices han hei subu ban coun e pa s, and had 95 pe cen highe pe capi a non-educa ional expendi u es han subu bs' (21) These cen al ci y highe cos s a e likely o de i e in pa om he special ci cums ances o he cen al ci y, such as highe land cos s, a mo e expensi e labou ma ke , and he 'honey po e ec ' which a ac s disp opo iona e numbe s o high consume s o public se ices such as he unemployed, he indigen , he old, one pa en amilies and so o h (22). Bu he subu bs may claim ha he highe cos s o he cen al ci y may also de i e om diseconomies o scale (which a me o sys em could exace ba e) o jus ine icien managemen . All in all, i could no be said ha he me o solu ion o he go e nmen o he u ban agglome a ion aces an easy u u e. I is a ail ba que a bes ha mus always ha e o nego ia e choppy wa e s, so we may expec cu en successes o al e a some s age and new me os o eme ge only o sink in he seas o pa y poli ical in e es s and co e ci y and subu ban con lic . No one eally lo es me o go e nmen .