Urban managerialism

URBAN MANAGERIALISM Mys i ica ion o Alloca ion and Accessibili y in a Mixed Economy l'hc pu posc o his pape is o qnes ion he <<u han manage ialismn hipo hesis which I ha e pu o wa d in p e ious pape s.' The no ion hai he e is a edis ibu ion o eal income as a esul o he aiioca iom o public esou ces and acili ies is weU unde s ood. The ideology o alloca- ion acco ding o need is pa o he appings o a he wel a e s a en as a ype o socie y, and p o essional g oups clai~ning special expe ise in he de e mina ion o and p o ision o such nceds ha e g own in powe as he esou ces hey ailoca c inc casc. Whiis a ocus on hese u han manage s o ga ekeepe s is a use ul esea ch s a egp, and whils an explo a ion o hei implici goals, alues, assump ions and ideologies is use ul in p o iding a aluable app oach o s uden s explo ing he ole o p o essionals in bu eauc acies, such an app oaach lacks bo h p ac ica1 policy implica ions and heo e ical subs ance. P ac ically he i nplica ion is so o en hai he e is need o mo e sensi- i i y and mo e esou ces: basicaily he plsnne s, social wo ke s, housing manage s and so o h a e e y o en ying o u n he aps o hei esou ces o a ou he mos disad an aged; bu ei hc h ough a mis aken belie in he alidi y o hei da a, a lack o awa eness ol he unin ended consequences o hei ac ions o simply h ough human e o , he csul s 1. R. E. Pahl U ban Social Theo y and Resea chu in '?bose Ciiy? Tnngmans 1970 chap. 13 nnd uU ban P ocesses and Social S uc u e* hli neu Uni si y o Ken 1972. U ban Manuge iaiism o hei ac i i y ai1 o imnp o e, and possibly add o, he pligh o he poo . Some imes, i is ue, hcy a c ca ying ou basically inequi able go e nmen policies, o en wi h eluc ance, bu knowing ha his is agains hei equi able ins inc s, i no hei p o essional aining. Gcne aily a lack o£ esou ces inhibi s he ull dc clopmen o hei p og amme, pian o p o ision and he cen al go e nmen is accused o ha ing he w ong o de o p io i im, o p i a e employe s and en ep eneu s a e accused o pu ing p i a e gain abo e public in e es . Thus, in p ac ica1 e ms hc implica ions u n ou o he ema kably simila : esea che s show ha he a ea o ope a ion o he p o essional alloca e is a mo e complica ed han his aining and policies ~u~~es .~ Wise , mo c scnsi i e and be e ained u ban manage s, suppo ed wi h mo e esou ces, is ine i ably he policy conclusion. As wi h indus ial ela ions he is a pe manen plea o abe e communica ionsn. Since ha is an inhe en p oblem in la gc. scale bu cauc a icaiiy-o ganised socie ies, he e is no eason why e e y esea ch wo ke should no disco e he poin o hiisel . I conside ha his emphasis on he local ga ekeepe s is o be wclmmed and, indecd, i is, in my iew, pa o he sociologis 's gene al esponsibiii y o explo e, expose and o demys i y he wo kings o ou ins i u ions which a e he e as ou c ea ions o mee ou needs and should no be seen as ex e nal sys ems domina ing us. Wc should no be su p ised o ind ha wi hin local go e nmen s uc u es he e a e coníiic s, euds, ac ions, di- ques, cabals and all he s ains and ensions common in bu eauc acies! In pa icula we shonld no he su p ised ha indi iduals and p o essional g oups o en d ess up hei plans o pe sonal and collec i e ca cc ad an- cemen wi h al uis ic and p o essional ideologies emphasising he needs o hei clien s as a basis o expansion. Some may bclic c ha wi h di - e en cla ionships o he meons o p oduc ion di e en mo i a ions and a di e en ahu nan na u e* nay eme ge. Un i1 such ime comes i would be a nai e sociologis who would expec local go e nmen bu eauc acies o ope a e e y much di e en ly om o he s. Tha he e may be some di e ences be ween u ban manage s and, say, indus ial manage s would be ha d o deny. Despi e he no doub well in en ioned a emp s o hose who scek o make local go e nmen cano e e icien ,, by in oducing managemen consul an s, ope a iunal esea ch and o he aids om he wo ld o p o i maximising, no all hose in 2. See, o example he wo k by No man Dennis Peoplc and Plonning Fabe 1970 nnd Puhlic Pa icipa io~z and lJlanne ' Bligh Fabe 1970 and J. G. Da is Tbe E angelislic Du eauc a . 3. A good ins nncc n lis is U ban Rencwal in Li c pool by D. hl. Muchnick G. Beii & Su is 1970. local go e nmen a e conce ned wi h p o iding e icien se ices e leas ~os o he a es. Those who belie e in public se ice, who belie e ha he lib a y se ice, o example, has always oo li le money and oo ew den s, would claim ha mo e money spen is no p o ligs e bu a he a o m o communi y in es men in he good li e. Simila ly hose espon- sihle o educa ion, heal h se ices, he pe sonal social se ices and he iike would a ely conside heic ask in e ms o e iciency, bu mo e o en i in e ms o equi y o e en equali y. Local go e nmen s' sea ch o a j coUec i e manage ial ideology and iden i y is cc ainly an in e cs ing e- sea ch ield bu can ha diy be a sepa a e ocus o u ban sociology. This b ings me o he second weaknes in he app oach - ha o heo- elical suhs ance. The ocus un u ban manage s o ga ekeepe s <aUoca ing>> indi ec wages nnd con oiiing access o sca ce u ban esou ces and acili ies in clan u han sys em,, may be use ul, hu oo much should no be buil upon i . Ce ainly he dange o e i ying concep s such as ualloca i e s uc u esa ' should bc a oided. Recen esea ch in B i ain has ocussed on he u ban ga ekeepe s la gely hecause he esea che has been hea ily on he side o he lowe pa icipan s who may ha e su e ed a he hands o insesi i e local o icials. I is unde s andaby e y easy o he esea - che o iew he si ualiou h ough he eyes o disad an aged local popu- la ions and o n ihu e mo e con ol and esponsibili y o he local o icial han, say, local employe s o he na ional go e nmen . Following Gould- ne 's sca hing discussion o his issue i does seem likely ha i is easie o sociologis s ecei ing hei esea ch unds om go e nmen depa men s o na ional esea ch councils o comhine wi h, as i we e, he bo om and he op in hlaming he middle. As Gouldne ema ks, such <<a c i icism o locnl manage s o he Ca e aking Es ablishmen a and no he es ed in e- es and a chaic me hods o hese middle dogs~ may lead o an <(unc i ica1 accomoda ion o he na ional Cli e and o he socie y's mas e ins i u ions>>.' Such is he dange and i does seem o be he case xom ecen B idsh s u- dies ha he middle dogs ha e been he chie a ge o champions o he unde dogP 4. As I end o do in he pape on <<Uiban P occsscs and Social S uc u en OP, ci . 5. A. W. Gouldne .The S ciologis as Pa isan: Sociology 2nd he Wel n e S a en in Fo Sociology AUen Lane 1973 p. 51. 6. In addi ion o he wo k by Dennis and Taylo ci ed abo e he e a c l~e bi ningham s udies by J. Rex and R. hloo e Race, Co,,i,niini y ond Con iid O.U.P. 1967 and by J. R. Lambe and C. J. Filkin Eihnic Choicc and P c e cnce in Houiing Repo o SSRC 1971 and by Sean Dame in Glasgow The B ooi~~ioa~l Koad Reboi iing Scheme Repo o he Glasgow Co po a ion and his unpublishe NA. hesis a he Uni e siiy u S a hclyde. Thcse local s udics ocusing on one sc o manage s o he u ban sys em may be admi able in enabling us o unde s and he wo kings o bu eauc acies and o ganiza ions. The de aiíed accoun s o he use and misu- se o ules, he in e na1 s uggles, he con usions, decisions and non-deci- sions a e all use ul accoun s o he wo kings o la ge-scale o ganisa ions and, in pa icula , o hei ela ionships wi h hose ou side he o ganisa ion. No doub mo e such s udies a e needed bu hey do no , e en when aken all oge he , add much o ou unde s anding o he ci y in capi alis socie y. Indeed, in many ways hey may con use and mys i y us by sugges- ing ha esea ch on he sociology o he u ban manage implies an unde s anding o an independen a iable in he c ea ion o he u ban sys em. Such is he posi ion I ha e cha ac e ised as u ban manage ialism. Tu ning o he indus ial sphe1.e iu o de o cla i y he poin abou he inadequacy o manage ialism, he c ucial poin manage ialis s pu o wa d is ha owne ship and con ol ha e become sepa a ed.' Thus, e en in such ma e s as o wa d plaming and in es men decisions i is he ma- nage s and no hc sha cholde s, o hei ep esen a i es hc di ec o s, who ake he c ucial decisions. Clea ly, his a gumen applies mos s ongly when in es men is d awn mos ly om e aincd ea nings and, io he case o public companies, asse s a e nppxop ia ely e lec ed in he quo ed sha e p ice. Wi hou he o me he managc s would be dependen on ex e na1 sou ces o inance and he con ol ha migh oilow om ha , wi hou he la e he company would be in dange o being aken o e~.~ Manage s main ain con ol la gely hecause o hei echnical expe ise in indus ies ope a ing wi h he mo e ad anced echnologies, he logic o science and echnology is sail o de e mine he way such i~ldus ies mus de elop. Manage s hus o m pa o he echnos uc u e, in Galb ai h's em? Fu he discussion o manage ialism in he indus ial con ex would be misplaced he e. E en hose who would hold o a heo y o indus ial manage ialism, and his is ha d o sus ain in he ligh o Nichol's a ack, would be e en mo e p essed o de elop a heo y o u ban m~nage ialism.'~ Ce ainly he p o essional o ice s o a local au ho i y can manipula e hei 7. These a gumen s a c admi ably summa ised in Thco Nichols Owne hip, Con- ol and ldeology Cm ge Aiien and Unwin 1969. 8. See R. E. Pahi and J. T. Winkle The Economic Eli e: Theo and P ac ice in P. S anwo h and A. Giddens (eds.) Eli e and Powe Camb idge Uni c si y P ess 1974. 9. J. K. Galb ai h The Neu Tndu ial S ai Hammish Hamil on 1967. 10. I is oniy ai o na e ha I ha e conle p obably as close as anyone o ailoplin~ his posi ion in my p e oius wo k. Scc also J. R. 1,amhe The Milnugenlen oi Mino i ies in The Neu A lanii (Miian) 2 (i) 1970. elec ed councilio s by wi hholding in o ma ion o p esen ing i selec i ely and by o he means. Also o some deg ee and in some cases hey ha e con ol o e income om a es. Fu he , hey can in luence he scope and ange o cen al gu e nmen legisla ion hy in o mal p essu e exe ed by hei mos senio p o essionals and also h ough hei a ious associa ions and Ins i u es. Howe e , a b s , hey only ha e sligh nega i e in luence o e he deploymen o p i a e capi al, and hei powe s o ba gaining wi h cen al go e nmen o mo e esou ces om public unds a e limi ed. E en when budge ing alloca io~~s ha e b en nego ia ed ei he be ween depa men s a a na ional le cl o bemeen he na ional and local go e n- men i is s iU liable o be cu o held back a e y sho no ice. W i ing a a ime when public expendi u e in B i ain has heen cu by El200 miliion and The Times is sugges ing ha £20,000 should be in es ed in (mainly p i- a e) indus~ ~, i is clea wha so o a mixed economy D i ain is." Tndccd i is e iden ha a um he e being a clea -cu cla ionship be ween he manage s and he managed in an u ban sys em - aken o mean a local con igu a ion o social, economic and poli ical powe sl uc u- es- he whul : no ion mus be seen as ex emely p oblema ic. On he o hc hand, unless one assullles a ela i e amoun o au onomy wi hin local con igu a ions he posi ion o u han sociology as a disiinc i e s ance wi hin he discipline becomes ex emely p eca ious. Wi hou such ela i e au onomy, li e chances would be solely de e mined by na ional decision and he e would be no a ia ion in access o esou ces, such as housing o educa ion, om one pa o he coun y o ano he (holding posi ion in he occupa ional s uc n e cons an ). I is wcU documen ed ha he e is, howe e conside able a ia ion in he le el o se ice and accessibili ~ o esou ces be ween locali ies?' This mus imply a ia ions in 'indi ec anges' and eal income in di e en mi- iieux o spa ial con igu a ions. I mdy appea in a speci ic con ex ha hose con oliiig he local a apsn - whe he planne s, housing manage s o medical o ice s o heal h - a e he ue 'ga ekeepe s and he way ha hey use and in e p e hei xules and p occdu es in lnences li e chances in a undamen al way. Qui c c idcn ly ecen case s udies demons a e ha is mucb o ce in his p~si ion." Howe e , i i is he case in onc con ex he smanage sn can ope a e inhumanely o insensi i ely, i is equally 11. See he edi o ial in The Times 19.12!73 and he uhscquen co espondence. 12. G. Taylo and N. Ay s Bo n and B ed Unequal Longman 1969. B. Da ies Social Needs and Resou ce in Local Se ice AUcn and Un in 1768. D. IIa ey <So- cial P ocesses, spa ial o m and he edis ibu ion o eal incomc in an u ban sys e n in M. Chisholm e al Re ional Fo esca ing 1971. 13. See abo e wo ks ci ed in oo no es 2 and 6. plausible o smanage ss in a di e en con ex o con ol hei local aps acco ding o di e en p inciples. Indeed, his mus be pa ly he cause o he empi ical a ia ion in he p o ision o acili ies which has been de- mons a ed. I i is he case, hen, ha he exis ing s a e legisla ion in he ields o planning, housing, social wel a e and so on pe mi s wide disc e ion on he pa o he local con oile s, i is mo e di icul o see how o ganised, sys ema ic and s uc u ed opposi ion can eme ge. I he local ga ekeepe s o public esou ces and acili ies do no sys en a ically wo k oge he o ein o me, e lec o ecompense inequnli ies engende ed h ough he p o- duc i e p ocess hen an u ban manage ialis hesis could ha dly be sus- ained. In o de o cla i y he main hemes o he discussion which ollows I se ou ou al e na i e ideal ypes. (i) Th? Manage ialis Model This assumes ha con ol o access o local esou ces and aci- li ies is held by he p o essional o ice s o he Au ho i y conce ned. Such nga ekeepe sn sha e a common ideology (which i is hc job o sociologis s o expose) and manipula e hei elec ed ep esen a i es so ha he poli ical composi ion o hc council makes li le di e- ence o he policies pu sued, and hence he e is a common e ec on indi cc wages o he popula ions as a whole. (ii) The S a is Model This assumes ha con ol o e local esou ces and acili ies is p ima ily a ma e o he na ional go e nmen and ha local p o- cssionals o manage s ha e e y li le oom o manoeu e. Na- ional legisla ion in he ields o housing, planning, educa ion and so o h, e ec i ely de e mine he indi ec wages o eal income o he popula ion as a whole. Whils he e may he ma ginal di e ences be wcen one local con igu n ion and ano he , hese do no subs an- ially n ec he basic class s uc u e. (iii) The Con ol-by-Capi alis s Model This assumes ha a ei he na ional o local le els esou ces ase alloca ed p i na ily o se i e he in e es s o p i a e capi alis s. Thcse may be aken o be he ep oduc ion o a docile, weU- ained and heal hy lahou o ce. I housing a ec s he supply o labou hen esou ces mus be alloca cd o ensu e hai he supply is adequa ely main ained. I g ow h and p o i s depend o some ex en upon in es - men in educa ion, hen, again, minimal esou ces mus be alloca ed U ban Manage iali m acco dmgly. Public se ices and acili ies a e always seen as a ~lu- xu yu acco ding o his model. A a local le el p i a e p o i is a mo e legi ima e basis o he alloca ion o , say, cen al loca ions han public good. (i ) The Plu alis Model This assumes a pe manen ension be ween na ional bu eauc a- cies, commi ed o ob aining and dis ibu ing la ge esou ces, ( oll* wing pa ly hei own in e na1 logic o g ow h) and he in c es s o p i a e capi al mani es ed h ough he economic p essu es o he ci y, p i a e indus y and he poli ical pa y ep esen ing he domi- nan class. Cu s and inc eases in public expedi u e ebb and low be ween di e en sec o s as he lines o con íic shi . Simila ly, local au ho i ies a e in compe i on whi h each o he o ge la ge sha es o cen al unds and, once unds a e ob ained, be e is he same en- sion be ween public and p i a e in e es s a a local le el. Each o hese ideal- ypical models p oduces di e en explana o y a- mewo ks o answe ing he ques ion 'who ge s wha ?' in gi en spa ial con ex s. Lea ing aside he di icul ques ions o poli ical economy which would ha e o be esol ed o de e mine which modcl is mos app op ia e o any gi en socie y, ( o example, is Sweden mo e like model (ii) o model (i )?), he e emains he p oblem ha no all local con igu a ions ha e equal demands o na ional esou ces. Since he physical and demo- g aphic a ia ion is conside able be ween one locali y and ano he in B i- ain, he oppo uni ies o ad boc special pleading in he claiming o na- ional esou ces a e e y g ea . Gi en, oo, ha e i o ial jus ice is an elusi e conccp , implying an abili y o come o a sa is ac o y de ini ion o social need by he bene olen dic a o o bene olen bu eauc acy a he cen e, some kind o ncgo ia ing o ba gaining be ween he nn ional and he local is likely o be an ine i able elemen in any sys em. The e y di e ences in local con igu a ions which gi e ise o di e- en amoun s o na ional esou ces inhibi s he es ablishmen o o ganised collec i e esponses o he alloca i e p ocess. Whils one local bu eauc a- cy may ha e made an e ec i e claim o mo e esou ces o local schools in he ligh o i s demog aphic s uc u e, a neighbou ing nu ho i y migh ha e less %ood schools bu be e heal h p o ision. Since peoples' concep- ions o ihe p o ision oi hese se ices a e likely o be hea ily in luenced by hei local snbjec i e cxpe iences, a sense o common dcp i a ion o 'u - ban class-consciousness' may no easily dc elop. Since di e n g oups bene i s di e en imes om di e en semices, common u ban conscious- ness is unde nined. Spo adic p o es s may, indeed, de elop: he mohile and a luen may p o es by no ing hei loca ion; he poo may ake p in en s ikes o squa ing. Pe haps hy ocussing a cn ion on indi ec wages he u ban snciologis helps o c ea e he e y mys i ics ions I ain a pains o desc ibe. By o- cussing on u ban esou ces and acili ies and by alc ing u han popula ions o hei ela i e dep i a ions in he icld o consump inn, a en ion is shi ed om he nain soíL ce o inequali y in socie y, na nely, he ield o p oduc ion. The wo k by Hindess in Li e pool shows ha he ex eme salience o housing oppo uni ies o wo ke s' li e chances has made his a cen ml ea u e o wo king class poli ical discussion. As Hindess pu s i ulocal go e nmen is expe iencecl no simply as p o iding a hackg oi~nd bu also as an ex e na1 cons aining nnd coe ci e o gani~a ion>>!~ In nlany no he n ci ies he Lahou pa y in con ol is seen as being as cons aining and as coe ci e as he al e na i e. I wo lce s a e made o hink ha hei main in e es s a e in he ield o consump ion, and i sociologis s adop a o m o u han manege ialism o explain he alloca ion o esou ces wi hin an u han sys em, hen clea ly basic inequali ies a ising om he p oduc i c p ocess will emain hidden. So a we ha e a gued spa ially: we ha e no iced he ension he ween he na ional and he local and hin ed a he ine i abili y o e i o ial in- jus ice. I is now necessa y o nake ce ain poin s explici : no econo ny can de elop in a c<spa ially neu aln way. Ine i ahly ce ain a eas will ha e ce ain ad an ages o he le elop~nen o he p oduc ion o ce ain goods and se ices. As echnology de elops o (bu no necessa ily) as ma ke s change, ce ain a eas g ow mo e apidly whils o he s decline. This unbalanced de elopmen ollows mo e om hc logic o£ echnological de elnp nen han om he pa e n o owne ship o he p oduc i e p o- cesses. As he di ision o labou becomes ma e ine, di e en ia ion and concen a ion o he wo k o ce p nduces a spa ial o m o an economy, which has a ela i ely au onomons logic o i s own. In he same way ha a ce ain scale o p oduc ion leads o he c ea ion o a esou ce - l~e economies o£ scale - so o0 does he physical concen- a ion o hc wo k o ce in ci ies c ea e a esou ce, namely accessibili y. As long as acili ies a e concen a ed so ha some loca ions a e ma e a- ou ed han o he s, hen ineqnali ies o ac essibili y will occu , whe he o no hese a e e lec ed in a di e en ial cn s nc u e. The e a e only wo ways o o e coming such inequali ies: he i s - would be o siloca e cen ali y acco ding o need. Since need changes o e 14. B. Hindess The Dec!inc o Wo king Class Poli ic Paladin Book 1971 p. 77. he li e cycle (heing close o a p ima y school when unde 11 is an ad an- age, being close when o e 65 can he a disad an age) and since he aci- li ies a e ma e spa ially ixed han he use s, hen a high le el o indi idual iobii y would be neccssa y. Howe e much his migh dis up social ela ionships and d aw amilies apa , i would ha e o be insis ed upon in he in e es s o e i o cal jus ice. The second al e na i e would be o nabolish cen ali y>>. Ci ies a e inhe en ly inegali a ian s uc u es and ul i- ma ely he only way o e adica e spa ial injus ice is o e adica he ci y. Tnis would seem o imply a cg ession o a simple mode ol p uduc ion and a less ine di ision u laholis. So a I am a guing ha echnology acd he di ision o labau c ea e ineq ali y indepe~id n l~ o ba engeizdeued by he capi alis mode o/ p uduc iun. I ci ics a e p edominan ly p i a ely owned hen a secoizd sou ce o inequali y, o e and abo e ha conncc ed wi h acccssibili y will eme ge, namely di e en ial en . And he wo as- pec s o inequali y a e in e ela ed. High accessibili y is gene ally cqua ed wi h high en s. Bu e y high en loca ions a e in u n c ea ed by he exis ence o hc mass o he popula ion ha su ounds hem. I , o e - nigh , &e ci y was o ally depopula cd, apa om hose li ing in he a ea o he e y highes en able alue, such high en s could no hc sns ained. Thus, he owne s o cen al loca ions ge a asu plus en u which, in he case o p oduc i e en c p ises, is passed on as un ex a cos which he wo ke has o wo k ma ginally longe o eco e o he employe . The undamen al di e ence be ween a 'capi alis ci y' and a 'socialis ci y' appea s, hc c o e, o he in c ms o he owne ship o land and en s ucluucs. Hence, i is possible o pos ula e a 'socialis ci y' in a capi alis socie y. This would he he casc i he s a e owned all u ban land dcspi e he owne ship o he o ces o p oduc ion s ill emaining in p i a e hands. Apa [ om paying en (howe e de e mined) o he S a e, p i a e capi a- lis cn e p ises could p esumably CA y on much as he o e. Such a si ua- ion aiscs in acu e o m he ela ionship be ween he poli ical economy and he e i o ial s uc u e o hc socie y. How would a ci y owned on a 'socialis hasis' in e ela e wi h a p i a ely owned sys enl u p oduc ion? I would only be unde hese ci cu ns ances ha he u ban manage ia- lisni I ha e discussed abo e would ha e o ce. Possibili ies o genuine edis iLu i e policies woulil eme ge so hn indi ec u ages could compen- sa e o low duec wagcs. 'l'eusion n;ould hen a ise bc e;n he poli y and he econolny as capi alis s ound ha hei con ol o c local labou ma k~ s was hc cby diminished. Indeed i is ili uugh hc cons uc ion o such a scena io ha h eali ies ii pouTe in a uly <mixed>> economy eme ge. The ci y hcn becomes a shn -l~an l e n1 o ih public alloca ion o all se ices and acili ies (including accessibili y), apa om posi ion in e idence o he a ia ion in he pa em and s yle o esploi a ion be ween owns as indus ialism ad anced.% The g ow h in he scale and olume o g anis-in-aid om hc S a e du ing hc ninc cen h cen u y was g aduaiiy o lead o a decline in p o- incial au onomy and he inc easing dominance o he powe o he S a e in de e mining app op ia e le els o educa ion, heal h, housing and so o h. Howc c , and his is he poin o his b ie excu sion in o nine een h cen- u y his o y, he de elopmen o na ional s anda ds o puhlic p o ision du ing he wen ie h cen u y mas g a ed on o a wide a ia ion in local in as uc n e. Thus, No wich, B is ol, She ield and Manches e , o ake ou ci ies a andom, no only had di e en local economic s uc u es bu also consequen ly had di e en le els o indi cc wages. Then, in he wen ie h cen u y, in he same way ha snme ci ies had acqui ed g ea e g ow h and g ea e wed h in he p e ious cen u y, so indus ial and u ban demy p c~duced a di e en pa e n which inc easingly has come o be seen as a na ional and no a local p oblcm. Fu he , as R i ain's compe i i e posi ion in he wo ld declined, as i los i s o e seas in es men s, i s Empi e, i s supplp o cheap auT ma e ials and i s cap i e ma ke s o manu ac u ed goods, so he poli ical powe o i s p oduc i e indus y inc eased, o ming, as i docs, he ounda ion o ou economic base. Unlike Fmnce, B i ain has o impo ahou hal i s ood and his means ha he p oduc ion o goods and se ices o expo occupy, wi h ag icul u e, a pa icula ly key ole in ou poli ical econamy. Th~s is b oadly he con ex in which he ecen d ama ic cu s in public expendi u e, and he p oposed e en mo e d ama ic in es men s in o in~lus y, mus be seen. The co npe i i e a ena o in e na ional inance capi alism pu s c y se e e cons ain s on B i ain's oom o manoeu e. The pu sui o wha we e seen as n oo adical,, measu es could lead o a massi e ligh o ca- pi al om he Ci y o London o money ma kc s clsewhe e and, possihly, a simila ligh o skilled nanage ial and p o cssional wo ke s. I B i ain cu i sel o om ading pa ne ships wi h mes e n capi alis socie ies i would be likely o en e acu e balance o paymen s c ises i ood impo s we e o be main ained. In his con ex , wi h con inuing in la ion aided by he ine i able inc ease in wo ld p ima y p oduc e ices (especially oii) expendi u e on u ban in as uc u e is ine i ably seen as a acos s es- ic ing ou o e all cumpe i i eness in wo ld ma ke s. In he ligh o his, i is su p ising ha he le el o ou public p o- ision is as high as i is in compa ison wi h, say, F ance. Pa ly his 30. J. Fos e Nin n h Cell u y Towns. a Class Dimcnsion in H. J. Bss (ed.) The S ldy o U ban His o y A nald 1968. can be accoun ed o by he inco po a ion o he wo king class in o he poli ical p ocess, he ex ension o he igh s o ci izenship and he e o m o social secu i y in he 1940s. Howc e , i would also be easonable o a ibu e some mcasu e o c edi o he o ces o bou geois libe al, Luma- ni a ian e o mism in be Fahian adi ion o amelio a ing he ha sh logic o capi alis en e p ise. The lowe -middie class alues o decency, o d li- ness and <balancen ensh incd in such amelio is p essu e g oups as he Town and Coun y Planning Associa ion'' ha e done much o c ea e a dima e o opinion in which he smail-scale o ou u ban scene, epi omised in he New Towns, was p ese ed and main ained. The ac ha a uni a y capi alis uliu~g class did no exis ni nine een h cen u y R i ain and ha , whils he a is oc acy a uled o icially~~, he hou geoisie uled co e aii he a ious sphe es o ci il socic y in eali y>> as Ma x no ed, has led Giddens o concei e o a asys em o lcade ship g oupsn ;o desc ibe he si ua ion odap?' iis pa e n may se e o so en and mode a e he mo e agg essi- e capi alis endencies. The e has heen ema kably li le esea ch on h ideolog which has p od l cd B i ish u banism and on he ela ionship be ween u ban alloca- ion and he pali ical conomy o he s a e. Ru h Glsss's su ey o hc ninc een h cen u y li e a u ^^^ and Raymond Williams' mas e ly wo k on he li e a y iniages o The Coi n y nnd he Ci y 34 pp ide aluahlc s a - ing poin s, and de ailed case s udies such as ha by S edman Jones j5 o IVuh1 36 a e ou s anding excep ions. Fo ecen yea s we ha e o ely on jo ~ nalis ic analyses, such as The P ope y Bo~ n,~ and somewha ga bled a emp s o link he ac i i ies o p ope y specula o s wi h he housing c isis in L~ndon.~ Wha is needed is a sys ema ic sacio-economic analysis o he implica ions o he apid mo emen o capi al in o land ma ke s. The expansion o inance capi alism in he B i ish economy is a new end which is sucking esou ces ou o local spa ial economies in a way p e- ious inclus ial in es men did no (a leas i p o ided local employmen ). 31. D. Foley Idea and In lu nce: The Town and Coun y Planning Associa ion lou nol u he Anje i an Ins i l e o Plo inec 26(1962) 10-17. 32. A. Gid lens Eli s in he B i ish Class S uc u e Socioioaical Re iew 20(3) 1972 pp 34513i2. 33. R. Glass U ban Sociology: A T end Repo Cu en Sociology 4 (4) 1955. 34. R. Wiüisms The Coi n y and he Ciiy Cha o and Windus 1973. 35. G. S cdman Jones Ouicas London Ox o d UP. 1771 36. A. S. Wohl The IIousinn ol he Wo ding Clnss in Landon 1815.1914 in S. D. Chwman (ed.) The Hii o y o Wo king ~la ~oiising Da id and Cha les 1971 and also he o hcoming book by P o aau Vohl. 3;. O. hla io The P ope iy Boom Hemish Hamil on 1962. 38. Coun e In o ma ion Se iics ?be Rec i en C isis oi London 1973. Such shi ing pa e ns o in es men ha e led Eisenschi z o conclude u ha now he ci y as a physical a e ac is being used in o de o abso b he economic su plus and p omo e he wel a e o he capi alis sys em~." In he iigh o ecen Go e nmen legisla ion o cu b he ac i i ies o p ope y specula o s, such b oad gene alisa ions may be ques ioned.' Ho- we e , Eisenschi z's emphasis on he lows o in es men capi al is co ec , As he pu s i : aTo undc s and he ela ion o he ci y o he wo ld and in pa icula he ela ions o a eas wi hii he ci y one needs o know whe e he su plus is gene a ed and nbso bed, and he magni ude, ge- ne a ion and des ina ion o wages, en , p o i s and ou pu . A eas and land uses should be examined wi h ega d o hei ela i e p o- duc ion and consump ion, and hei gene a ion and abso p ion o p o i s, ela ing land use pa e ns o cconomic o ces. Each pa e n o lows has an associa ed pa e n o social ela ionships.>" This mus be done in he con ex o B i ish poii ical economy based on ou dis nc i e in as uc u e and dis inc i e posi ion in he pa e n o wo ld ade in capi dis ma ke s. au banismn, as Ha ey eminds us, aen ails he geog aphic concen a- ion o a socially designa ed su plus p oduc ~!~ Ci ies a e essen ially un. ai . U ban sociology in capi alis socie ies is basically conce ned wi h analysis o he dis inc i e o m o un aimess o one socie y in compa ison wi h ano he . I am a guing, somewha elip ically pe haps, ha B i ish u banism and he indi ec wages gene a ed nnd dis ibu ed a e a p oduc o he ensions be ween compe i i e in e na ional ca~i alism and amelio- is wel a e-s a e- ype ideologies. This may menn hai he B i ish u han wo king class su e s less naked exploi a ion in he a ea o colie i e con- sump ion, and ha he cen al go e nmen is less di igis e, han may be he case in F ance. Howe e , in making hese analyses o he dis inc na- u e o a ious o ms o capi alis u banism he e is an u gen need o eme nbe - as Mam and Engels i s saw- ha ' he housing ques ion', and much else ha is w ong in ou ci ies can ncuc be sol ed whiie ema- de n big ci iesa su i e. E en i we had he social con ol and owne ship o he means o p oduc ion, so long as such nmode n hig ci iesa exis , so 39. A. Eisenschi z ~Planning and Inequali yu Mimeo: The A chi ec u al Asw cia ion 1973. 40. Thc Ties 2.1.'74. 41. Eiscnschi z op. ci . p. 73. 42. Ha ey op, ci . p. 246. also, i in a di e en o m, will he inequi ahle gene a ion oi indi ec wages con inue. The sea ch o a jus ci y is sel -de ea ing. As long as he e a e nmodc n big ci icsn he e will be a need o amelio ism and he aUoca ion oi esou ces by manage s and ga ekeepe s. And, o e u n o Hn ey a hc epu a ion and signi icance o indi idual ci ies es o a la ge deg ee upon hci loca ion wi h espec o he geog aphic ci cula ion o he su plus. The quali z i e a ibu es o u banism will liiewise be a ec ed by he ise 2nd iaU in he o al quan i y o su plus as ell as he deg ee o which he su plus is p oduced in concen a able e m>>." I see his ocus on he ci cula ion o he su plus as he main heo e ical o ien a ion o he u u e. This should no p c en ac i is s and p agma- is s wo king owa ds he a nelio is s' goals o .ma e esou ces and mo e sensi i i yn. The e is no eason, apa om in ellec ual a ogance, why hey should no wo k closely oge he . 43. Ihia.