Contents. Medicine and scientific method in the roman world

DYNAMIS Acta Hispanica ad Medicinae Scientiarumque Historiam Illustrandam Vol. 15  1995 Contents MEDICINE AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD 1N THE ROMAN WORLD (Guest Editor Rosa María Moreno Rodríguez) Medicine and Scientific Method in the Roman World. Introduction (Spanish) ROSA MARÍA MORENO RODRÍGUEZ  19 Galen ad multos annos VIVIAN NUTTON  25 Abstract This paper focuses on demonstrating the weakness of the traditional date for Galen' s death. It shows that there are good grounds, from both within the Galenic Corpus and outside it, for thinking that he lived at least until he was eighty. Information from Byzantine and Arab scholars from the sixth century onwards suggests that he had died in the reign of Caracalla, perhaps in 216. Method in Galen RICHARD DURLING  41 Abstract I have discussed the four methods of ancient philosophy namely demonstration, division, resolution, and composition. But first, I glance at logic, which «discovers the principles of medical treatment». Method in pathology discovers «the affected parts of the body» and nosology, «the symptoms of diseases and their causes». In therapeutics, method «discovers drugs appropriate to specific diseases». The leader in all things pertaining to method is Hippocrates. Elements for the construction of case histories in Galen (Spanish) LUIS GARCÍA BALLESTER  47 Summary Introduction. 1.—Immoral behavior of the pacient and disease. 2.—The patient's social condition. 3.—Conclusions. Abstract This note calls attention to Galen's use of different, nonrational elements of Hellenic culture and society in the construction of his case histories. Galen and the refounding of medicine (Italian) MARIO VEGETTI  67 Summary 1.—The crisis in medicine. 2.—Medical sects. 2.1—The empiricists. 2.2.—The rationalists. 2.3—The methodists. 3.—The refounding of medicine: Axioms and values. 4.—The new physician. 5.—The reconquest of morality. Bibliography and Abbreviations. Abstract The writings of Galen discussed in this article present an outline of the project he devoted his life to. Firstly, the reconstruction of a higher model of medical knowledge, in terms of its epistemological legitimization and its cultural and social role. Galen's refoundation of the epistemological statute of medicine involved increased emphasis on axiomatization, albeit not without disregard to data obtained through experience as a final guarantee. Secondly, the construction of a lay morality, independent of the ties to power or religious constraints. Through anatomy and physiology, Galen was attempting to comprehend the providential notion that governed nature: a powerful ideology set against the uncertainty of philosophers and the propagation of irrationalist religions. From this extreme position, the galenic physician demanded that medicine be not only a general task of ideological and cultural orientation, but also a source of real, particular power over the control of moral behavior and social deviation. The scientific conceptualization of the female being. Metaphoric use in Galen's writings (Spanish) ROSA MARÍA MORENO RODRÍGUEZ  103 Summary Introduction. 1.—Galen's commentaries on the Hippocratic doctrine of feminine nature. 1.1.—The Hippocratic view. 1.2.—Galen's exegesis of Hippocratic writings. 2.—Physiology: The female organism and androcentrism. 3.—Androcentrism and the metaphorical use of considerations of the female organism in Galen's works 4.—Conclusions. Abstract This article, a gender study of the writings of Galen, aims to investigate the reasons for the sustained claims of the inferiority of feminine nature with respect to masculine nature. We offer a reconstruction of the social values held by Galen, which conferred to him an androcentric model of knowledge that differed from the other scientific forms in existence at that time. We show that descripcions of the female organism are assiduously associated with maleness or nature, which we interpret as a metaphorical and exemplifying use for the transmission of ethical norms, and the credibility of the doctrine. PUBLIC HEALTH IN CONTENIPORARY SPAIN (Continued) (Guest Editor Rafael Huertas García-Alejo) The role of nursing in the development of public health in Spain (1923- 1935): The Public Health Nurse (Spanish) JOSEP BERNABEU MESTRE; ENCARNA GASCÓN PÉREZ  151 Summary Introduction. 1.—Antecedents: The National School of Child Care and the Child Care Public Health Nurse. 2.—The National Health School and the Nursing School Project. 3.—The Professional Association of Public Health Nurses. 4.—Conclusions. Abstract In this research we analyze the process of institutionalization of Public Health Nursing in Spain during the period 1923-1935. Socialization programs are first studied, within the framework of the National School of Child Care (1926) and the National School of Health (1933), as well as the agreement on postgraduate training abroad signed with the Rockefeller Foundation (1931). Secondly, we analyze the professional activities carried out by these nurses, and the organizational efforts of this collective, which led specifically to the foundation of the Public Health Nursing Association in 1934. Our findings bring to light the process of sociological definition, as a specialized sector within nursing practice, attained by the professional activity of public health nursing, and illustrate the influence of this profession on the improvement of public health in Spain. Childhood as a value and a problem in the campaigns for health at the beginning of the twentieth century in Spain (Spanish) ROSA BALLESTER; EMILIO BALAGUER  177 Summary Introduction. 1.—The new social construct of childhood. 1.1.—General characterization of the new orientations. 1.2.—Childhood as a value. 2.—The medicalization of child life. 2.1—Baby doctors. 2.2.—The child's medicat identity. 3.—Scientific approach to childhood diarrheas as an example of the medicat model incorporated into the welfare practices aimed at children. Abstract The paper explores how, through a process that began in the fast decades of the nineteenth century and continued during the first part of the present century, especially in the 1920's, infancy and infant health were regarded as objects of great value and as a social problem. The child's body was studied and analyzed by doctors, a situation that had important repercussions in other spheres of social life. Children were considered to have a series of characteristics which formed, as a whole, an ideal model within the family and home setting. Care, protection and intervention are the three components underlying the sanitary reform process that supported the health and welfare of children in Spain during this period. The role of mental health during the first attempts to transform psychiatric care in Spain (Spanísh) RAFAEL HUERTAS  193 Summary Introduction. 1.—The doctrinaire principles of Mental Health. 2.—Mental prophylaxis and the structure of health care. 3.—Legislative approval of the new model. Abstract This article analyzes the role of mental health in the definition of a new model of psychiatric care, which incorporated principles of prophylaxis and public health, and was intended to replace the previous paradigm of confinement We study the main theoretical and organizational proposats that arose in Spain during the 1920's, both in Catalonia and in Madrid, and also investigate the major piece of related legislation, which was included in the Second Republic's attempts at psychiatric reform. Public health during Franco's regime (Spanish) PEDRO MARSET CAMPOS; JOSÉ MIGUEL SEZ GÓMEZ; FERNANDO MARTÍNEZ NAVARRO  211 Summary Introduction. 1.—General evolution of public health between 1900 and 1978. 2.—Evolution of public health in Spain during the twentieth century. 3.—Health during Franco' s regime. 3.1.—Scientific production in public health. 3.2.—Creation of National Health Insurance. 3.3.—The 1944 Basic National Health Law and the 1963 Basic Social Security Law. 4.—Conclusions. Abstract We compare the most relevant characteristics of the evolution of public health as a science during Franco's regime with the behavior of significant parameters in the evolution of health care in Spain (mortality and morbidity rates, spending on health care, institutional development of the health care system). Our purpose was to characterize how the legacy inherited by current health care legislation in Spain has given rise to the problems currently faced. The backslide during the post-Civil War period as a result of the victors' identification of the advances achieved in the Second Republic with leftist policies, delayed modernization imposed by the accelerated process of industrialization, and obstacles caused by the consolidation of National Health Insurance, led to a paradigm based exclusively on medicat care. AIDS prophylaxis. Analysis of a strategy (Spanish) LUIS MONTIEL  251 Summary Introduction. AIDS and the History of Medicine. 1.—A complex framework for prophylaxis against a new disease. 2.—Strategies of prophylaxis. 3.—Implementation of the strategy. Abstract This study draws attention to some of the problems encountered in developing strategies for prophylaxis against AIDS. Some approaches have been reconsidered and amended — at least partially — although other potentially important problems remain, such as those arising from the most recent definition of the disease, now considered to be sexually transmitted, and those related with the attitudes of different target audiences of messages encouraging the use of prophylactic measures. This article attempts to highlight the practicat consequences of certain theoretical claims about the disease and prophylactic measures. On the configuration of the current model of thought on Public Health in Spain (Spanish) ANGEL GONZALEZ DE PABLO  267 Summary 1.—Public Health subordinated to dogmatic moral precepts. 2.—The conditioning of Public Health by reasoned morality. 2.1.—Theoretical foundations. 2.2.—Practicat application. 3.—Public Health as a provider of individual and social moral order. 3.1.—Theoretical foundations. 3.2.—Practical application. 4.—Public Health as a measure of socially appropriate behavior. 5.—Epilogue. Abstract From an analysis of medical works on hygiene and the promotion of health from the start of the Modern Age until the present, using Spain as the main example, we attempt to describe the process of formation, and the current configuration, of the perceptual sphere of hygiene and public health. In different sections, we note how the promotion of health — initially from a moral standpoint, and later on the basis of medicine and hygiene, was intertwined with attempts to bring about forms of behavior appropriate to the socioeconomic needs of each historical period. This phenomenon was especially evident when processes of industrialization arose. ARTICLES 1n tenebris adhuc versantes. The response of Spanish novatores to the invective by Pierre Régis (Spanish) ALVAR MARTÍNEZ VIDAL; JOSÉ PARDO Tom2ks  301 Summary Introduction. 1.—Awareness, denouncement and causes of scientific backwardness in Spain. 2.—Diego Mateo Zapata's La Crisis Medica sobre el Antimonio (Madrid, 1701). 3.—Manuel de Porras's La Anatomia Galenico-moderna (Madrid, 1716). 4.—Epilogue. Abstract Pierre Régis, a French Calvinist physician exiled in Holland, made a disparaging mention to the Spaniards and the Portuguese in his foreword to M. Malpighi's Opera Posthuma (Amsterdam, 1698). Several Spanish physicians, especially Diego Mateo Zapata, replied to Régis's invective in an attempt to win support from the new Borbonic dynasty for the scientific renovation movement started in the last decades of the seventeenth century. Two major institutions were involved in the replies: the Royal Society of Medicine and other Sciences of Seville, and the Anatomical Theatre of the General Hospital of Madrid, both created during the reign of Charles II of Austria_ The self-perception of the Spanish medicat novatores and their awareness of the backwardness of Spanish science with regard to Europe are analyzecL Animal regeneration experiments from 1686 to 1765. How to defend preexistence? (Spanish) JAVIER MOSCOSO  341 Summary Introduction: Historiography of regeneration. 1.—Clarifications regarding «pre-existence». 2.—The first experiments: Qaude Perrault and René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur, 1686-1712. 3.—Regeneration according to the polyplike manner. 4.—Embryology versus physiology. Abstract This paper deals with the way in which the pre-existence of germs was defended in the face of experimental conclusions regarding animal regeneration in the period between the turn of the seventeenth century and the 1760's. From the experiments of Qaude Perrault (1680), Antoine de Réaumur (1712), Abraham Trembley (1740-44) and Charles Bonnet (1740), it became clear that pre-existence delimited its objective so narrowly as to make it invulnerable to all possible experimental refutation. Moreover, we shall argue that this construction of the objective was linked with a renewed definition of the «community of practitioners» built upon the notion of «scientific exclusion». The Madrid Royal Academy of Medicine and botanical expeditions during the Enlightenment. A pharmacological-therapeutical connection (Spanish) RAUL RODRÍGUEZ NOZAL; ANTONIO GONZALEZ BUENO  375 Summary Introduction. 1.—Pharmacological research on American drugs at the Madrid Royal Academy of Medicine (1793-1834). 1.1.—The botanical-pharmacological contributions of José Pavón. 1.2.—The botanical-pharmacological contributions of Hipólito Ruiz. Abstract We studied the repercussions of Enlightenment botanical expeditions on pharmacological controversies that arose within the Royal Academy of Medicine in Madrid. The main contributors to the knowledge of pharmacological and therapeutic properties of American flora were José Pavón, and especially Hipólito Ruiz, of the Oficina de la Flora Americana. Contributions by other participants in expeditions were rare, and are limited to the writings of Vicente Cervantes, Martín Sessé and José Mariano Mocino, botanists who travelled to New Spain. The origins of the regulation of prostitution in contemporary Spain from Cabarrús's proposal (1792) to the Madrid Regulations (1847) (Spanish) JEAN LOUIS GUERE "NA  401 Summary To regulate or not to regulate prostitution? Cabarrús's proposal.—The deba- te among public health experts.—Police surveillance.—Patricio de la Escosura and the 1847 Regulation.—The new system of regulations. Abstract The publication in 1847 of the Reglamento para la represión de los excesos de la prostitución en Madrid (Regulations for the repression of the excesses of prostitution in Madrid) inaugurated an era of regulated prostitution in Spain, which followed upon a period of abolitionism decreed by Philip IV. In view of the spread of prostitution and venereal diseases, police measures, and especially medical measures were both considered in the development of these regula tions, which had first been proposed by the Count of Cabarrús in 1792. Although completely confidential, the new system of regulations, drawn up in 1847, set the stage for the wide-reaching regulation of prostitution that came into effect in several cities in Spain during and after the mid-nineteenth century, and which included city residence and periodic health surveillance for prostitutes. DOCUMENTS Sex, morals and medicine in Counter Reformation Spain. An unpublished report on pollution by the Jesuit Miguel Pérez (1550-105) (Spanish ) MELCHOR BAJÉN ESPANOL  443 Summary Introduction.—Text of Miguel Pérez's report [Archivo Histórico Nacional (Madrid), Papeles de Jesuitas, leg. 144, no. 2]. Abstract The religious movement known as the Counter Reformation did not impede the development, within the heart of Roman Catholic Europe, of a notable diversity of ideologies — even in political settings (eg, in the Spain of Philip II) that have been repeatedly cited as centers of intellectual ultraconservativism — and as regards the domain of sexual morality, a particularly controversial topic within Catholic theology after the eleventh century. The previously unpublished document we describe is a clear example of this lack of unanimity. It contains the theological and moral opinions of the Jesuit Miguel Pérez (1550-1605) regarding a case which was probably studied by many Castilian theologians during the final third of the sixteenth century: the proliferation of pollutions in persons of both sexes. Against traditional Catholic morality, Miguel Pérez sought to exempt from moral responsibility those persons affected, by medicalizing this problem, and by citing the doctrine of moral probabilism. IN MEMORIAM Elvira Arquiola Llopis (1947-1995) GUILLERMO OLAGÜE DE Ros  459 ANGEL GONZÂLEZ DE PABLO; JOSÉ MARTÍNEZ PÉREZ; LUIS MONTIEL; ISABEL PORRAS  461 THESES ON THE HISTORY OF MEDICENE AND SCIENCE PRESENTED EN SPANISH UNIVERSITLES, 1992-1994 Section coordinated by ALFREDO MENÉNDEZ NAVARRO  463 NEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS  479 BOOK REVIEWS JUAN LUIS CARRELLO; GuiLLERIvio OLAGÜE DE Ros (eds.) (1994). Actas del .,00= Congreso Internacional de Historia de la Medicina. Granada Sevilla, 1-6 de septiembre de 1992, Caja San Fernando de Sevilla y Jerez. José Valenzuela Candelario  487 GHISLAINE LAWRENCE (ed.) (1994). Technologies of modern medicine. Proceedings of a seminar held at the Science Museum, London, March 1993, Science Museum. Rosa María Medina Domenech  490 RICHARD J. DURLING (1993). A Dicdonary of medical Terms in Galen, E. J. Brill  Elsa García Novo  493 JAUME MENSA I VALLS (1994). Arnau de Vilanova, espiritual: guía bibliogràfica, Institut d'Estudis Catalans. Montserrat Cabré  496 KENNETH F. KIPLE (ed.) (1993). The Cambridge World History of Human Disease, Cambridge University Press. Juan Luis Carrillo  497 MARÍA JOSÉ RUIZ SOMAVILLA; ISABEL JIMÉNEZ LUCENA; PILAR GARDETA SABATER; JESÚS CASTELLANOS GUERRERO (eds.) (1992). Teoría ymétodo de la Medicina, Universidad de Esteban Rodríguez Ocaña  498 EULALIA PÉREZ SEDENO (comp.) (1993). Mujer y ciencia. Arbor, 144. Consuelo Miqueo Miqueo  501 THOMAS LAQUEUR (1994). La construcción del sexo. Cuerpo y género desde los griegos hasta Freud, Crítica. Teresa Ortiz Gómez  505 MALCOLM LAURENCE CAMERON (1993). Anglo-Saxon Medicine, Cambridge University Press. María José Carrillo  507 MAXIMIANO LEMOS (1991). História da Medicina em Portugal. Doctrinas e instituiçó es, Publicaçóes Dom Quixote/Ordem dos Médicos./ Alvar Martínez Vidal  509 LESLEY DEANJONES (1994). Women's Bodies in Gassical Greek Science, Clarendon Press. Rosa María Moreno Rodríguez  510 MICHAEL MCVAUGH (1993). Medicine before the plague. Practitioners and their pacients in the Crown ofAragon, 1285-1345, Cambridge University Press. Teresa Ortiz Gómez  513 JUAN kwomo PANIAGUA (1994). Studia Arnaldíana. Trabajos en torno a la obra médíca de Arnau de Vilanova, c. 1240-1311, Fundación Uriach 1838. LUIS GARCÍA BALLESTER; ROGER K. FRENCH; JON ARRIZABALAGA; ANDREW CUNNINGHAM (eds.) (1994). Practical medicine from Salerno to the Black Death, Cambridge University Press. Fernando Salmón  515 ENRIQUE MONTERO CARTELLE (ed., trad.) (1993). Tractatus de sterilitate. Anónirno de Montpellier (s. xrv) (atribuido a A de Vilanova, R de Molerisyf de Turre), Secretariado de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Valladolid. Manuel E. 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Nfissionaties of Science: The Rockefeller Foundaüon and Latin America, Indiana University Press. Antonio Lafuente  532 Area 3, Cuademos de temas grupales e institucionales, 1994, número 1. Rosa María Medina Doménech  536 Ingenium. Cadernos de Historia das Ciencias e das Técnicas, números 1 (1989), 2, (1990) y 3 (1992); serie Monografias. Antonio Lafuente  537 Manguinhos. História, Ciéncias, Saúde, 1994, 1, número 1. Rosa María Moreno Rodríguez  538