Document [original]

Social Inclusion (ISSN: 2183–2803)

2022, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 278–289

https://doi.org/10.17645/si.v10i2.5085

Article

Are Adolescents in One‐Parent Families a Previously Unnoticed Group in

Inclusive Career Guidance?

Jerusha Klein 1,2,*, Katja Driesel‐Lange 1, and Svenja Ohlemann 2

1Institute of Education, University of Münster, Germany

2Department of Educational Psychology, TU Berlin, Germany

* Corresponding author (jerusha.klein@uni‐muenster.de)

Submitted: 11 November 2021 | Accepted: 24 February 2022 | Published: 9 June 2022

Abstract

In Germany, schools are largely responsible for adolescents’ career development. Corresponding interventions in career

guidance must take into account various endogenous and exogenous factors of individualized development to foster suc‐

cessful post‐school transitions. Parents, in particular, are one of the most significant influencing factors when it comes

to shaping after‐school plans usually having a highly positive effect along with teacher support. Children in one‐parent

families constitute a group that has received little attention so far in the context of career guidance analysis. They are at

a higher risk of social decline into precarious circumstances and of living in families with lower education levels as well

as less parental care time. In addition, one‐parent families more often report that they are unable to adequately support

their children concerning career development, ultimately impacting the children’s post‐school transition. Based on the

theoretical model of career competence, a sample from eight German schools (N =1998) is used to investigate to what

extent adolescents in one‐parent families differ from their peers in other family compositions regarding both support and

development of career competence. Each school’s location and teacher support are included in the calculations. This study

shows that adolescents in one‐parent families display below‐average levels concerning three of the analysed facets (occu‐

pational knowledge, exploration, and self‐regulation).

Keywords

adolescents; career competence; career education; multiple linear regression; one‐parent family; risk group

Issue

This article is a part of the issue “Challenges in School‐To‐Work Transition: Perspectives on Individual, Institutional, and

Structural Inequalities” edited by Brigitte Schels (Institute for Employment Research / University of Erlangen‐Nuremberg)

and Veronika Wöhrer (University of Vienna).

tion 4.0 International License (CC BY).

1. Introduction

Educational careers are significantly influenced by

socio‐demographic and socio‐economic factors (OECD,

2016). The disadvantages of students with a low socio‐

economic status, migration background, and/or under‐

educated parents are especially significant in Germany

(Albert et al., 2019; Hadjar, 2011; Klieme et al., 2010).

The effects of one’s upbringing and origins can also be

observed in adolescents’ post‐school transitions (Beicht

& Walden, 2019), career decisions, and other determi‐

nants of their career development, like cultural back‐

ground (Solga & Wagner, 2001) or gender (Driesel‐Lange

& Ohlemann, 2019). Independently from their back‐

ground, all adolescents need to acquire career‐related

skills to successfully navigate and manage their careers

(Driesel‐Lange et al., 2020).

In Germany, schools and the Arbeitsagentur (fed‐

eral employment agencies) are legally tasked with sup‐

porting adolescents in acquiring career‐related skills

as well as in their post‐school transition (Deeken

& Butz, 2010). Career education and learning is

Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 278–289 278

therefore a central task of all German secondary schools

(Kultusministerkonferenz [KMK], 2017). Although

research has shown that students differ in their career

development and, hence, in their needs for support

(Ohlemann & Driesel‐Lange, 2018), career guidance is

rarely tailored to these individual needs.

With this in mind, this article takes a closer look at

parental influence, as parents as a group vary just as

much as adolescents. The authors seek to clarify how

different family constellations affect the development

of career competence and what conclusions might be

drawn. In this context, it must be pointed out that chil‐

dren in one‐parent families as a group have received lit‐

tle attention in career education and guidance research

so far. They are at a higher risk of social decline into pre‐

carious circumstances and of living in families with lower

education levels and less parental care time (Bartels

& Stockhausen, 2017). In the next step, we study the

effects of teacher support on students from different

family compositions to derive relevant support mecha‐

nisms in schools.

2. German Educational System and Career Guidance

2.1. German Educational System

In Germany, schooling begins at the age of six (or just

about). All children in Germany start with Grundschule

(primary school) which usually lasts four years (grades

one through four). Exceptions here are the federal states

of Berlin and Brandenburg, where primary school usually

lasts six years (until grade six). After Grundschule, sec‐

ondary education begins. Basically, there are three types

of schools—Hauptschule,Realschule, and Gymnasium—

as well as schools that combine two or three types

of schools under one roof. These are usually called

Gesamtschulen. Depending on the type of school, either

a vocational track or a higher education track is typ‐

ically favoured: Very roughly speaking, the German

Hauptschule goes up to grade nine or ten with a focus

on a vocational track; the German Realschule goes up

to grade ten with a focus on a vocational track; the

Gymnasium goes up to grade 12 or 13 with a focus on

a higher education track. The Gesamtschule is a compre‐

hensive school form combining different tracks and may

go up to grade 13. However, as an example, students who

attend a Gymnasium and pursue a higher education track

also have the opportunity to pursue a vocational track

after the ninth or tenth grade. In principle, compulsory

education begins at the start of Grundschule. From here

on, all children are educated full‐time until the end of the

first phase of secondary school (nine years). After that,

the obligation to attend school full‐time ends, because

there are opportunities for vocational training within the

vocational track. Choosing this track means that young

people spend part of their time at school and the rest

of their time at work. Upon reaching the age of major‐

ity, all forms of compulsory schooling end (cf. Eurydice,

2021–2022). An illustration of the German education sys‐

tem can be found in Figure 1.

2.2. Career Guidance in Germany

In Germany, the preparation of the transition from

school to work is linked to the goal of enabling all

students to develop their careers in a self‐determined

Germany — 2021/22

Age of students

Note: Full- me compulsory educa on/training ends

at the age of 18 or 19 dependign on the Länder.

Early childhood educa on and care (for which the Ministry of Educa on is not responsible)

Early childhood educa on and care (for which the Ministry of Educa on is responsible)

Primary educa on

Alloca on to

the ISCED levels:

Compulsory full- me educa on/training

Compulsory part- me educa on/training

Addi onal year

Study abroad

Combined school and workplace courses Years Programme being

phased out during (year)

Compulsory work experience + its dura on-/n/-

Single structure Secondary general educa on Ter ary educa on (full- me)

Secondary voca onal educa on

Post-secundary non-ter ary educa on

Krippe Kindergarten

(Kinder-)Tageseinrichtung für

Kinder aller Altersgruppen

Grundschule Gymnasium

Gymnasiale Oberstufe

Universität

Kunsthochschule / Musikhochschule

Fachhochschule

Berufsakademie

Verwaltungsfachhochschule

Fachschule / Fachakademie

Berufsoberschule

Abendgymnasium / Kolleg

Fachoberschule

Realschule

Haptschule

Schularten mit

drei Bildungsgängen

Schularten mit

zwei Bildungsgängen

Berufsfachschule

(Duale Berufsausbildung)

Berufsschule/Betrieb

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Programme dura on (years)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

ISCED 0 ISCED 1 ISCED 2 ISCED 5 ISCED 6ISCED 4ISCED 3 ISCED 7

Orien eungsstufe

Figure 1. Structure of the national education system. Source: Eurydice (2021–2022).

Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 278–289 279

manner and to shape them successfully in the long term.

Career guidance can be seen as a highly relevant educa‐

tional task, as it addresses the successful long‐term par‐

ticipation of citizens in the labour force and society over‐

all. As you can see above, in Germany the educational

system offers many opportunities to decide on a career

during but also after school. It is possible to decide at

a very young age, after grade nine (in the age of 15),

to do vocational training and to work at least part‐time

in a business. At the same time, it is possible to stay in

school until the age of 19, for example, to start studying.

In this case, entry into the workforce would be further

delayed by the years of study. Nevertheless, adolescents

need information and support during their school years

in order to anticipate this process.

In this regard, both the schools themselves and

the employment agencies have a special responsibil‐

ity. According to the latest resolutions of the Standing

Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural

Affairs of the States in the Federal Republic of Germany

(KMK, 2017), all secondary schools are generally required

to offer a program over a period of several years from

grade seven onward, providing individual career guid‐

ance and support. During this process, adolescents are

required to examine their aspirations and wishes as well

as prospects and opportunities. Based on their interests,

skills, and individual potential, students are challenged

to shape their career choice process on their own and

to make well‐founded decisions that are not based on

stereotypical attributions. They are supposed to receive

advice and support on various steps along the way—with

the help of extracurricular partners. Ultimately, the goal

is to have adolescents compare their own professional

interests and opportunities with the requirements and

conditions of the world of work (KMK, 2017).

3. Theoretical Background

Developing relevant career competence (Driesel‐Lange

et al., 2020) and one’s own occupational identity (Fend,

1991) as well as planning and fleshing out the transi‐

tion to post‐school educational options represent cen‐

tral tasks of career guidance for adolescents. Career

decisions are influenced by a multitude of endogenous

and exogenous factors, the career development process

itself (cf. Ohlemann, 2021), and the acquisition of career‐

related competences and resources (Driesel‐Lange et al.,

2020; Hirschi et al., 2018).

3.1. Career Competence Development in Adolescence

Concerning lifelong career development (Savickas, 2012),

adolescents must develop competences and resources

enabling them to shape their own career in the long

term. Definitions of career competences set out by both

Defillippi and Arthur (1994) and Kuijpers and Scheerens

(2006) place these skills in close relation to career devel‐

opment as an adult and overall career success. Building

on these definitions and the concepts of career self‐

management (King, 2004), boundaryless careers (Arthur,

1994; Defillippi & Arthur, 1994), protean careers (Briscoe

& Hall, 2006; Hall, 1996), and human capital (Fugate

et al., 2004), models such as the career competences

model of Akkermans et al. (2013) or the career resources

model of Hirschi et al. (2018) specify these capabilities.

There are also sociological theories that use for exam‐

ple external factors and effects of origin to explain career

choice and the transition between school and the labour

market. These include Bourdieu’s (1982, 1987) theory

and Roberts’ (2009) opportunity structure theory. In sim‐

ple terms, both theories assume that later career choices

are strongly influenced by external factors (e.g., origin

and parental home). The authors of this article also refer

to external factors to find out how strong their influ‐

ence is on the acquisition of career‐related competences.

However, the starting point here is the individual, in par‐

ticular the individual acquisition of competences.

Most of the aforementioned models refer to adults

who are already employed. However, adolescents can

only draw on limited experiences during their first career

choice and the related post‐school transition. For adoles‐

cents, it is not the organization or the world of work, but

rather the schools that constitute the referential context

for their career development. To successfully manage

this first career choice, they require other career compe‐

tences, such as the development of a career self‐concept

or implementation strategies (Driesel‐Lange et al., 2020;

Savickas et al., 2018). At the same time, the implemen‐

tation of career guidance varies so much depending on

the school system (Schröder, 2020) that the school con‐

text is rarely considered in theoretical models. The career

competence model by Driesel‐Lange et al. (2020) consti‐

tutes an exception explicitly taking the school context as

well as post‐school transitional competences and devel‐

opmental needs into account.

The model by Driesel‐Lange et al. (2020) describes

career‐related development as an individual process

during which adolescents acquire various competences

within the dimensions of knowledge, motivation, and

action. As can be seen from Figure 2, each dimen‐

sion consists of four facets. The knowledge dimen‐

sion includes self‐knowledge, occupational knowledge

(i.e., knowledge about the world of work and/or specific

occupations), knowledge of prerequisites, and planning

knowledge. The motivation dimension includes career

concern, career control, career curiosity (i.e., willingness

to remain open to new career opportunities and alter‐

natives), and career confidence. The action dimension

includes exploration, self‐regulation, problem‐solving,

and stress management. In this context, exploration

refers to the concrete action of finding information

about one’s own interests, job profiles, and educational

paths. Self‐regulation refers to the ability to manage

career goals by consciously setting goals and monitor‐

ing and planning their implementation (Driesel‐Lange

et al., 2010).

Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 278–289 280

• Self-knowledge

• Occupa onal knowledge

• Knowledge of prerequisites

• Planning knowledge

Knowledge

• Career concern

• Career control

• Career curiosity

• Career conﬁdence

Mo va on

• Explora on

• Self-regula on

• Problem-solving

• Stress management

Ac on

Tuning in

Phases of career choice

competence Exploring Deciding A!aining

Figure 2. Career competence model. Source: Driesel‐Lange et al. (2020).

In addition to these competences, the model outlines

four phases describing different stages in which adoles‐

cents find themselves. These include tuning in, explor‐

ing, deciding, and attaining. In the first phase (tuning

in), the focus lies on the preparedness to plan one’s

future. This phase is followed by various concrete experi‐

ences (exploring) in the world of work, such as an intern‐

ship or a targeted search for information about a job.

In the third phase (deciding), the adolescent makes a con‐

crete decision about his or her post‐school educational

path. In the last phase (attaining), the students begin

actively preparing the transition. Overall, this model

combines both phase‐typical aspects and competence‐

related implications. It has been contextually integrated

into the school environment and operationalized for the

needs of schools (Kaak et al., 2013). Further, the underly‐

ing assumption that there is little connection between an

adolescent’s individual development and their age/year

of birth has been shown in different studies (Ohlemann,

2021). That is one argument why it is so important to

look at the individual and then consider external factors.

Our study builds on the career competence model by

Driesel‐Lange et al. (2020).

4. Current Research

4.1. Heterogeneity in the Career Development

of Adolescents

Adolescents differ in their individual prerequisites, their

social, financial, and educational resources, as well as

their starting points and developmental progress. These

differences give rise to a diverse range of needs in terms

of support for the respective individual career choice pro‐

cess (Ohlemann, 2021).

Regarding the exogenous factor of cultural back‐

ground, adolescents with migration backgrounds bear

a higher risk of remaining without occupational qual‐

ification. Further, the importance of parental opinion

regarding the individual career choice differs among

students from different cultural backgrounds (Solga &

Wagner, 2001). Regarding the endogenous factor of gen‐

der, studies have shown that girls in Germany start

their career choice process earlier than boys do and

explore their options more thoroughly. However, they

also face higher insecurity regarding their career deci‐

sions (Driesel‐Lange & Ohlemann, 2019). Driesel‐Lange

and Kracke (2017) observed different levels of career

competence among students in grade nine. Moreover,

Ohlemann and Driesel‐Lange (2018) identified differ‐

ent groups with different competence levels or profiles.

Ohlemann (2021) has argued that a path toward individ‐

ualized career education can take place through internal

differentiation. These heterogeneous factors enable us to

identify individual groups and make specific needs visible.

4.2. Social support in Career Development

Parents represent another important factor in the life of

every adolescent. They play an important role in their

children’s overall development as well as in their career

choice process and their career success later in life.

Heckman and Mosso (2014) found that children’s

cognitive and social‐emotional development are influ‐

enced by the time spent with their parents. In addition,

the parent’s income and educational background have

a significant impact. Higher parental income and better‐

qualified parents are associated with better schooling

(Heckman & Mosso, 2014), access to higher education

(Kracke et al., 2018), and the children themselves having

a higher income later in life (Bartels & Stockhausen, 2017;

Jäntti & Jenkins, 2015). We see that many factors have an

impact on a person’s success over the course of their life.

Further, a positive relation between adolescents’ explo‐

rational behavior, their satisfaction with their transition

to university, and perceived parental support can be

observed (Dietrich et al., 2011). The higher the perceived

support from parents and teachers, the more exten‐

sively students explore their career options, the higher

their self‐efficacy, and the more systematically they plan

Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 278–289 281

their next career‐related steps (Mayhack & Kracke, 2010).

Dietrich and Kracke (2009) found a negative association

between parents’ interference and a lack of engagement,

respectively, and adolescents’ decision‐making abilities.

In addition, we know that social status, demographic

conditions, and the social environment shape and influ‐

ence a person’s actions. This can be seen, among other

things, in Bourdieu’s (1982, 1987) concept of habitus,

which manifests itself in three types of capital: economic,

social, and cultural. If a person does not have sufficient

access to each type of capital potential disadvantages

may arise. Of course, this also applies to adolescents and

their development.

As mentioned above, parents and the overall family

structure play a crucial role. We know that families exist

in all colours and shapes, so it is important to look at dif‐

ferent constellations and starting points. This should not

be done by reproducing stereotypes, but by identifying

potential needs more precisely. We also know that indi‐

vidualized and needs‐based career education leads to

better results in the transition from school to vocational

training or higher education. Special attention should

therefore be paid to one‐parent families with a focus

on analysing if children in these settings require specific

types of support. In this context, schools could play an

important, compensatory role.

We know that one‐parent families represent a grow‐

ing group in Germany (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2018).

From 1996 to 2017, for example, the number of

one‐parent families with at least one underage child

increased from 13.8% to 18.9%. It ought to be added

that most single parents in Germany are mothers, sin‐

gle fathers as primary caregivers only make up a small

portion (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2018). We also know

that one‐parent families in Germany demonstrate a

higher risk of poverty and, as a consequence, are at

a higher risk of becoming part of the societal pre‐

cariat (Bahle et al., 2013; Bartels & Stockhausen, 2017;

Statistisches Bundesamt, 2018). About 40% of children

in one‐parent families were considered as “living in

poverty” in 2012. As a comparison, the overall poverty

risk in Germany lies at approximately 14% (Bartels &

Stockhausen, 2017). Bahle et al. (2013) showed that the

risk of one‐parent families drifting into a precarious situ‐

ation can be observed across Europe. Parents from lower

socio‐economic backgrounds find it more difficult to sup‐

port their children in their career choice process (Institut

für Demoskopie Allensbach, 2014). Their children also

more often choose to pursue vocational training rather

than go to university (Kracke et al., 2018). In contrast, 71%

of adolescents from higher social strata choose a univer‐

sity degree (Albert et al., 2019)—and during their transi‐

tion to university, they benefit from their parents’ respec‐

tive knowledge and experience (Kracke et al., 2018).

In terms of their children’s career choice processes,

one‐parent families rate their own ability to support

their children as insufficient almost twice as often as par‐

ents do in general (Institut für Demoskopie Allensbach,

2014). This is partly due to the fact that single par‐

ents can spend less time with their children because

of the multitude of tasks they must accomplish on

their own (Bartels & Stockhausen, 2017). At the same

time, children in one‐parent families often feel less pre‐

pared regarding their career decisions compared to their

peers living in other family constellations (Institut für

Demoskopie Allensbach, 2014). This means we observe

a perceived lack of support on both sides in one‐parent

families. Therefore, it is highly surprising that children in

one‐parent families have received little targeted atten‐

tion in the context of career education so far.

4.3. The Crucial Role of Teacher Support

Several studies have shown that teacher support posi‐

tively influences students’ development with regard to

different facets of career competence (Driesel‐Lange

et al., 2021). In addition to an increase in self‐efficacy

and planning, Schindler (2012) found a positive relation

between higher perceived support from teachers and

students’ career‐related feelings of security. Over time,

the informational and emotional support provided by

teachers has a particularly positive influence on the cog‐

nitive dimension of career competence (Driesel‐Lange

et al., 2018). The development of career competence

is also influenced by social support adolescents receive

from parents, peers, and teachers during their career

choice process (Driesel‐Lange et al., 2018). This also

shows that in Germany school is a relevant starting point

to counteract potential disadvantages students may face

in terms of career development. Therefore, it is impor‐

tant to look at different target groups and identify their

needs more precisely.

As can be seen from the theoretical implications and

the current state of research, successful career guidance

and education depends on many exogenous and endoge‐

nous factors. Moreover, career competences are crucial

for successful school‐to‐school or school‐to‐work transi‐

tions, satisfaction later in life, etc. In Germany, it is a pub‐

lic political and strategic goal to support adolescents in

their career development thus enabling them to make

a proactive, informed, and independent career choice

(KMK, 2017). The development of career‐related compe‐

tences is a crucial aspect of this process. In addition, we

have seen that parents play an important supporting role

(in the same way as teachers do). As has been pointed

out, it is striking that families with only one main par‐

ent have received little attention so far. Placing special

research focus on one‐parent families promises to be par‐

ticularly beneficial as (a) many single parents themselves

state they are unable to support their children adequately

in their career development and (b) children in these fam‐

ily constellations more frequently display feelings of inse‐

curity with regard to their career decisions. In addition,

it ought to be reiterated that these families are more

likely to face financial difficulties with far‐reaching conse‐

quences for children’s career development.

Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 278–289 282

5. Research Questions and Hypotheses

With this study, we aim to add to the existing knowl‐

edge on career development, in particular the develop‐

ment of career‐related competences of adolescents in

one‐parent families in comparison to other family con‐

stellations. Our research question focuses on how stu‐

dents vary in their career competence development as

well as their perceptions of parental and teacher support

depending on the composition of their family.

Based on the findings discussed above, we have for‐

mulated the following hypotheses:

H1: Parental support is positively correlated

with adolescents’ developmental status of career

competence.

H2: Adolescents in one‐parent families receive less

(perceived) parental support in everyday school life.

In Germany, career education mainly takes place in sec‐

ondary schools. Hence, students are likely to perceive

career‐related activities and challenges as part of their

school life. Therefore, if they are asked about parental

support regarding school matters, it can be deduced that

their answers include career‐related matters as well:

H3: Living in one‐parent households predicts a lower

level of career competence among adolescents.

H4: Higher perceived teacher support predicts a higher

level of career competence among adolescents.

6. Methodology

6.1. Participants

Adolescents (1098 female, 900 male) ranging from

ages 12 to 22 (M=16.4, SD =1.65, grade eight

to 13) who were enrolled in one of eight secondary

schools (two Hauptschulen, three Gesamtschulen, and

four Gymnasien) in North Rhine‐Westphalia, Germany,

participated in the underlying survey: 49.9% exclusively

spoke German at home and 50.1% spoke another lan‐

guage (in addition to German); 609 respondents (30.1%)

were enrolled in a school in a neighborhood to be con‐

sidered “privileged” or “well‐to‐do,” while 1416 respon‐

dents (69.9%) were enrolled in a school in an “underpriv‐

ileged” or “underserviced” neighbourhood. The status of

a school is related to the socioeconomic status of the

neighbourhood. “Underserviced” schools are in a neigh‐

bourhood with low socioeconomic status. The basis

for the identification of the status “privileged” and

“underprivileged” are data of the federal state North

Rhine‐Westphalia, which give the “social status” of the

neighbourhood via social points (income rate of the

neighbourhood, migration share, and employment rate;

see Isaac, 2011). Further, 328 respondents (16.2%) lived

in one‐parent families, 1498 respondents (74%) lived

with both parents, 130 respondents (6.4%) lived in

blended families (i.e., one parent and their partner), and

70 respondents (3.5%) had other living arrangements.

Please notice that, due to rounding, we reach 100.1%

here. Due to the heterogeneity of reasons, the last group

was excluded from this study.

6.2. Measures

Career competence was measured with 38 items (7‐point

Likert‐scale) using items from the standardized diagnos‐

tic questionnaire of career competence (Kaak et al.,

2013). This questionnaire is based on the theoretical

model of career competence by Driesel‐Lange et al.

(2020). Table 1 provides an overview of the correspond‐

ing facets with their respective means, standard devia‐

tions, and Cronbach’s alpha as well as an example item.

Four items of the TIMSS 2015 study (Wendt et al.,

2017), were used to determine the interest of parents

in their children’s school life (e.g., “My parents ask me

what I’m currently doing in school”) and thus to iden‐

tify potential parental support. Students reported on

a 5‐point Likert scale from 1 (never/nearly never) to 5

(every day/nearly every day). The internal consistency

estimate (alpha) for the scores in this study was .79

(n=1977, M=3.56, SD =1.19).

Students rated the support provided by teachers

(7‐point Likert scale) by answering a modified version

of Schindler’s (2012) scale by Driesel‐Lange et al. (2018).

For example, teacher support was operationalized by

statements such as “In my class, we often talk about

topics that affect our time after school” or “most of my

teachers support me in finding my strength.” The inter‐

nal consistency estimate (alpha) was found to be .92

(n=1998, M=3.99, SD =1.37).

6.3. Procedures

The tablet‐based survey took place in January 2019

during regular class hours at the respective schools.

Students’ participation was voluntary and they received

a small gift (e.g., candy, chocolate bars) at the end of the

survey. We conducted our analyses in four steps. After

examining the descriptive values, we proceeded using

bivariate correlations between the career competence

scales and parental support. Next, an analysis of variance

(ANOVA) with the family constellation constituting the

independent variable and parental support constituting

the dependent variable was used to examine group dif‐

ferences via Hochberg’s GT2 post‐hoc tests (Field, 2018).

After that, we applied a three‐step hierarchical proce‐

dure to test our third and fourth hypotheses regarding

the prediction of career competence. Following Field

(2009, 2018), we conducted boot‐strapped multiple lin‐

ear regressions with the facets of career competence

as dependent variables. Analyses were conducted using

SPSS (version 25).

Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 278–289 283

Table 1. Means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s alpha of all scales.

Scale (N Items) Example item M SD 𝛼

Self‐knowledge (3) I can accurately assess my abilities. 5.24 1.19 .76

Occupational knowledge (3) I know how vocational training programs or academic studies 4.09 1.53 .89

are organized.

Knowledge of prerequisites (3) I know exactly how to prepare for my future job. 4.53 1.63 .89

Planning knowledge (2) For the time being, I have set clear goals in order to move 4.16 1.67 .80

closer to starting my career.

Career concern (3) It is important for me to clarify which professions I am suited for. 5.83 1.23 .88

Career control (3) I am already thinking about what I want to be. 5.01 1.41 .88

Career curiosity (4) I enjoy exploring new professions. 4.62 1.43 .68

Career confidence (4) How much do you trust yourself to describe what your dream 4.50 1.26 .83

job should look like.

Exploration (3) How often have you purposefully asked several people in the 3.68 1.69 .88

last few months for information about occupations and

training opportunities.

Self‐regulation (3) If something that I wanted to do goes wrong, I want to find 4.70 1.40 .78

out the reasons.

Problem‐solving (3) I trust myself to find a solution if I were to suddenly drop in 5.22 1.28 .88

my school performance.

Stress management (3) Thinking about my future profession is a burden for me. 4.50 1.46 .81

Teacher Support (10) Most of my teachers support me in finding out what my 3.99 1.37 .92

strength is.

Parental support (4) My parents ask me what I’m currently doing in school. 3.57 1.19 .82

7. Results

7.1. Parental Support is Positively Correlated With

Adolescents’ Developmental Status of Career

Competence

The bivariate correlations among parental support and

teacher support as well as the twelve career competence

facets are reported in Table 2. All facets of career com‐

petence are significantly associated with the two scales

of support. Although these effects are comparatively

small (Cohen, 1988), our first hypothesis about a positive

correlation between parental support and adolescents’

career competence is validated. A positive correlation

can be observed between the described career compe‐

tence facets and perceived support. Adolescents who feel

Table 2. Correlations of the career competence facets with parental and teacher support.

Parental support Teacher support

Self‐knowledge .128*** .096***

Occupational knowledge .034* .109***

Knowledge of prerequisites .093*** .138***

Planning knowledge .105*** .162***

Career concern .114*** .103***

Career control .170*** .205***

Career curiosity .113*** .188***

Career confidence .123*** .151***

Exploration .080*** .143***

Self‐regulation .211*** .159***

Problem‐solving .125*** .149***

Stress management .061*** .042***

Note: *** p<0.001, ** p<0.01, * p<0.05.

Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 278–289 284

supported by their parents or teachers also have higher

scores in the career competence facets and vice versa.

7.2. Adolescents in One‐Parent Families Receive Less

(Perceived) Parental Support in Everyday School Life

The calculated ANOVA revealed a highly significant over‐

all effect of the family composition on perceived parental

support, F (2, 1903) =8.88, p <.000, 𝜂²=.01, represent‐

ing a small‐sized effect (Cohen, 1988).

Post‐hoc tests showed that there is a significant

difference between perceived parental support in

one‐parent families (M=3.34, SD =1.23) and “tradi‐

tional” two‐parent families (M=3.64, SD =1.15) as well

as between blended families (M=3.36, SD =1.25) and

two‐parent families. Students who live with both par‐

ents feel more supported than young people in blended

families or one‐parent families. Our hypothesis that ado‐

lescents from one‐parent families (feel they) receive less

parental support in everyday school life is confirmed.

7.3. Living in One‐Parent Households Predicts a Lower

Level of Some Career Competence Facets Among

Adolescents

To test our third hypothesis, we performed a hierarchical

multiple linear regression model for each of the twelve

career competence facets. As our focus in this study lies

on family composition, we will only report in detail on the

results of the following facets: occupational knowledge,

exploration, and self‐regulation.

Family composition significantly predicted the mean

level of these three facets and remained significant

in the second step with the addition of the predictor

of teacher support. The remaining nine facets are not

reported, regardless of the significance of the last step

in the regression.

As Table 3 shows, the total R‐square for three facets

is statistically highly significant and of a similar size

between .05 and .08, representing a similarly good

model fit for these career competence facets.

Adolescents from one‐parent families have signifi‐

cantly lower levels of competence in each presented

facet compared to their classmates living with both par‐

ents (see Table 3). This effect is the same for three facets

(all standardized 𝛽:−.06). Further, there are differences

between two‐parent families and blended families on

the shown facets, but only occupational knowledge has

a significant effect (standardized 𝛽:−.05).

In terms of exploration, it is clear that the location of

the school has an effect (standardized 𝛽: .06). Adolescents

in an underprivileged location explore more. The third

hypothesis is confirmed with regard to the facets of occu‐

pational knowledge, exploration, and self‐regulation.

Table 3. Hierarchical multiple regression predicting facets of career competence from demographic factors, school location,

family composition, and teacher support.

Facets of career competence

Occupational knowledge Exploration Self‐regulation

Predictor ΔR2𝛽ΔR2𝛽ΔR2𝛽

Model 1 .01*** .01*** .02***

Gender (0) .01 .05* .12***

Language (0) .10*** −.06* −.11***

School location (0) −.03 .08** −.01

Model 2 .02** .02** .03**

Gender (0) .01 .05* .12***

Language (0) .10*** −.06* −.11***

School location (0) −.02 .08** −.01

One‐parent family (0) −.07** −.06** −.07**

Blended family (0) −.05* .04 −.03

Model 3 .05*** .06*** .08***

Gender (0) .01 .05* .12***

Language (0) .11*** −.06* −.10***

School location (0) −.04 .06* −.03

One‐parent family (0) −.06* −.06* −.06**

Blended family (0) −.06* .04 −.03

Teacher support .17*** .20*** .23***

Total R2.05*** .06*** .08***

n1907 1907 1907

Notes: Reference category is “two‐parent family”; gender: 0 =male, 1 =female; * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001; school location:

0=privileged, 1 =underprivileged.

Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 278–289 285

7.4. Higher Perceived Teacher Support Predicts a Higher

Level of Career Competence Among Adolescents

The perceived teacher support predicts the state of

development in the shown facets of career development.

The stronger the perceived teacher support, the higher

the level of competence.

These significant effects lay between .17 (occupa‐

tional knowledge) and .23 (self‐regulation) and are thus

twice or three times higher than the effect of living in a

one‐parent family or a two‐parent family. Our hypothesis

that higher perceived teacher support predicts a higher

level of career competence is confirmed.

7.5. Limitations

One limitation of our studies lies in the cross‐sectional

analysis from which no conclusions can be drawn regard‐

ing causality or development processes. For example,

we can only find a positive correlation between per‐

ceived support and higher scores in career choice compe‐

tence, but no direction of effect. A longitudinal analysis

might also focus on how children of one‐parent families

develop in relation to their peers. The group of blended

families would have to be defined more precisely to iden‐

tify possible risks in this area as well. Only small effects

could be identified, which can be regarded as a first indi‐

cation for potential needs. Furthermore, no interactions

between the other predictors and family compositions

were considered, but the shown findings suggest that

interactions might exist.

8. Conclusion

Preceding research showed the positive effect of parental

and teacher support on adolescents’ career development

(Mayhack & Kracke, 2010; Schindler, 2012). We were able

to confirm this result with our data. As Dietrich et al.

(2011) state, parental support in the form of conversa‐

tions about what has been experienced in the context

of career guidance is important—particularly when it

comes to managing the transition from school to voca‐

tional or academic life. It was also found that adoles‐

cents from one‐parent families rated parental support as

lower than adolescents living with two parents. These

results confirmed the assumption that one‐parent fam‐

ilies support their children’s professional development

less (Institut für Demoskopie Allensbach, 2014).

As mentioned above, the development of career

competences is a complex process that recurs to differ‐

ent dimensions and phases (Driesel‐Lange et al., 2020).

The model is focused on both the school situation in

Germany and the individual adolescent and describes

that a variety of competences have to be acquired.

These twelve competences are assigned to three dimen‐

sions, namely knowledge, motivation, and action. These

are needed at different stages to deal with the tran‐

sition after school. The model describes four phases

(tuning in, exploring, deciding, and attaining). The com‐

plexity of individual development is made clear by the

fact that development cannot be thought of in a lin‐

ear way (Ohlemann, 2021). This shows why it is so

important to closely monitor how the acquisition of

career competences develops and which factors could

cause a lower acquisition of competences. It became

apparent that adolescents from different family compo‐

sitions only differed regarding their development in the

following areas: occupational knowledge, exploration,

and self‐regulation. However, the results must be put

into perspective with regard to the adolescents’ level

of career competence. It is important to mention that

the adolescents did not differ concerning the other

facets, like problem‐solving, knowledge of prerequisites,

or career confidence based on their family constellation.

Here we also see that external factors do not fully explain

how the acquisition of career competences proceeds.

This is why it is so important to take a closer look at the

individual, the different competences and external fac‐

tors. Only then can further implications for the support

of adolescents be made visible.

In the context of the state of research, exploration in

particular stands out here. Kracke and Noack (2005) were

able to show that adolescents develop positively in their

exploration when both parents continuously encourage

their children or provide their children with moderating

support. The fact that children from one‐parent fami‐

lies show a risk here can be used for further research.

In this article, only one quantitative characteristic was

collected. We know whether the adolescents in our sam‐

ple grow up mainly with one or both parents. We know

nothing about the quality of the relationship, the par‐

enting style and expectations, or the educational level

of the parents. We can only assume—and this is sug‐

gested by both Bartels and Stockhausen (2017) and

the Institut für Demoskopie Allensbach (2014)—that the

group of one‐parent families is limited in terms of time

and resources.

Nevertheless, based on these findings, further con‐

clusions may be drawn. For one, adolescents from

one‐parent families face a specific need for support in

the area of occupational knowledge, exploration, and

self‐regulation. At the same time, it can be seen as a relief

that adolescents from one‐parent families do not face a

specific need for support on other facets of career com‐

petence, e.g., self‐knowledge, career curiosity, or stress

management. In order to target support, further studies

would have to focus more closely on the parent‐child rela‐

tionship. This could then reveal very specific needs.

The shown effects of the one‐parent family on the

level of career competence are also relativized in com‐

parison to the strong effects of teacher support. The pos‐

itive effect of teacher support offers an opportunity to

address or cushion the needs of this group through

school‐based career guidance. Therefore, it is important

to raise teachers’ awareness of their positive and signifi‐

cant influence.

Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 278–289 286

We were able to confirm that adolescents from one‐

parent families are a risk group in career guidance that

has received too little attention. In order to be able to

classify these findings more broadly, however, a more

thorough examination of this group is required. Until this

takes place, we know that children in one‐parent fami‐

lies need support early in their career development pro‐

cess. Further, schools as the key element of career guid‐

ance in Germany must be made aware of this risk in to

provide appropriate support to these students. Among

many things, this means a sufficient number of staff is

needed for schools to provide the level and quality of sup‐

port both policymakers and society expect from them.

Furthermore, didactical consequences must be drawn to

address special needs (e.g., peer learning, mentoring).

This conclusion can contribute to more equal opportu‐

nities in the context of school‐internal career guidance,

ensured through the support of teachers.

Acknowledgments

This study is an outcome of the project StepUp! Fostering

Career Competence funded by the Stiftung Mercator,

Germany. The funding source was not involved in the

study design, data collection, and analysis or writing

of this article. In the course of working on the article,

author Jerusha Klein transferred from the TU Berlin to

the University of Münster.

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare no conflict of interests.

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About the Authors

Jerusha Klein was a researcher at the Department of Educational Psychology at Technical University

of Berlin while working on this article, before she started her current position as a researcher at the

Institute of Educational Science at WWU Münster. She is interested in the topics of career guidance

as a school development task, especially enabling schools to offer individualized career guidance and

education. Jerusha Klein is part of the scientific network for career education.

Katja Driesel‐Lange is a researcher at the Institute of Education at WWU Münster. She is interested in

topics of career guidance towards an individual perspective. Especially diagnostic‐based interventions,

social support, and gender influences are the focus of her research. Katja Driesel‐Lange is one of the

founders of the scientific network for career guidance, which aims to promote research in the field of

career development and career education.

Svenja Ohlemann is a researcher in the field of career guidance and education. Her research focuses

on young people’s career development, trajectories, and needs. She has recently completed her dis‐

sertation on career guidance between heterogeneity and individualization. Svenja Ohlemann is part

of the scientific network for career guidance, which aims to promote research in the field of career

development and career education.

Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 278–289 289