Vol:.(1234567890)
International Tax and Public Finance (2021) 28:1090–1121
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10797-020-09653-y
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Pigou inthe21st Century: atribute ontheoccasion
ofthe100th anniversary ofthepublication ofThe
Economics ofWelfare
OttmarEdenhofer1,2,3· MaxFranks2,3 · MatthiasKalkuhl1,4
Accepted: 22 December 2020 / Published online: 19 January 2021
© The Author(s) 2021
Abstract
The year 2020 marks the centennial of the publication of Arthur Cecil Pigou’s mag-
num opus The Economics of Welfare. Pigou’s pricing principles have had an endur-
ing influence on the academic debate, with a widespread consensus having emerged
among economists that Pigouvian taxes or subsidies are theoretically desirable, but
politically infeasible. In this article, we revisit Pigou’s contribution and argue that
this consensus is somewhat spurious, particularly in two ways: (1) Economists are
too quick to ignore the theoretical problems and subtleties that Pigouvian pricing
still faces; (2) The wholesale skepticism concerning the political viability of Pig-
ouvian pricing is at odds with its recent practical achievements. These two points
are made by, first, outlining the theoretical and political challenges that include
uncertainty about the social cost of carbon, the unclear relationship between the
cost–benefit and cost-effectiveness approaches, distributional concerns, fragmented
ministerial responsibilities, an unstable tax base, commitment problems, lack of
acceptance and trust between government and citizens as well as incomplete inter-
national cooperation. Secondly, we discuss the recent political success of Pigouvian
pricing, as evidenced by the German government’s 2019 climate policy reform and
the EU’s Green Deal. We conclude by presenting a research agenda for addressing
the remaining barriers that need to be overcome to make Pigouvian pricing a com-
mon political practice.
Keywords Environmental economics· Climate change economics· Carbon pricing·
Pigouvian taxation· Economic policy
JEL Classification Q5· H2
* Max Franks
franks@pik-potsdam.de
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
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No “invisible hand” can be relied on to produce a good arrangement of the
whole from a combination of separate treatments of the parts. It is therefore
necessary that an authority of wider reach should intervene to tackle the col-
lective problems of beauty, of air and light, as those other collective problems
of gas and water have been tackled.
(Pigou 1920, Part I, Chapter VI, §11, pp. 170–171)
1 Introduction
2020 marks the centennial of the publication of Arthur Cecil Pigou’s magnum opus
The Economics of Welfare. In this masterpiece of economic theory, Pigou set out
“to study certain important groups of causes affecting economic welfare in actual
modern societies” (Pigou 1920, Part I, Chapter I, §5, p. 11). It is noteworthy that
Pigou used the term “actual modern societies” when stating the objective of his mis-
sion. Over the course of his early career leading up to the publication of his magnum
opus, Pigou became a disciple of Alfred Marshall. As such, he supported Marshall’s
efforts to establish economics as a discipline in its own right (Maloney 1985), set-
ting it apart from philosophy and history. In particular, he distanced himself from
economic historians, who, since the Methodenstreit in the 1880s, saw themselves
as being increasingly separated from the new orthodoxy in economics, which now
studied neo-classical equilibria and marginal utility (Hobsbawm 1987, chap. 11).
Pigou was heavily engaged in contemporary politics and public debates of his
times. In several columns, penned by the young Pigou, he advocated free-trade prin-
ciples and argued against Chamberlain’s protectionist trade policies. Reacting to a
senior cabinet member’s campaign, he mounted a defense of pension schemes that
retain incentives to work. His writings on the efficiency of land rent taxation engen-
dered a heated controversy among liberal members of parliament. Pigou continued
working on social questions, such as minimum housing standards, unemployment
benefits and medical insurance (Takami 2014).
In this tribute, however, we wish to focus on Pigou’s contributions that laid the
groundwork for the modern field of environmental economics (Sandmo 2015).
In The Economics of Welfare, Pigou defined positive and negative externalities,
described their impacts on production and devised ways of correcting or internal-
izing these externalities:
In like manner, for every industry in which the value of the marginal social net
product is less than that of the marginal private net product, there will be cer-
tain rates of tax, the imposition of which by the State would increase the size
of the national dividend and increase economic welfare; and one rate of tax,
which would have the optimum effect in this respect.
(Pigou 1932, 4th ed., Part II, Chapter XI, §11)
Local air pollution was already a significant problem at that time, as dust led to
higher electricity demand (lightening) as well as higher costs for cleaning buildings
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and clothes—a problem that Pigou highlights in his book by citing a governmental
report1:
A valuable investigation was made in 1918 by the Manchester Air Pollution
Advisory Board into the comparative cost of household washing in Manches-
ter—a smoky town—as compared with Harrogate—a clean town. The investi-
gator obtained 100 properly comparable statements for Manchester and Harro-
gate respectively as to the cost of the weekly washing in working-class houses.
These showed an extra cost in Manchester of 7½d. a week per household for
fuel and washing material. The total loss for the whole city, taking the extra
cost of fuel and washing materials alone, disregarding the extra labor involved,
and assuming no greater loss for middle-class than for working-class house-
holds (a considerable under-statement), works out at over £290,000 a year for a
population of three quarters of a million.
(Pigou 1932, 4th ed. Part II, Chapter IX, §10, Footnote 68)
Today, we see Pigou’s legacy in the fundamental concepts of externalities and their
correction through Pigouvian taxes or subsidies, which are taught in elementary
economics courses. Modern research on optimal environmental taxation has often
equated a tax set at marginal environmental damages with the Pigouvian tax (Cre-
mer etal. 1998). In this line, various works have analyzed optimal policies in so-
called second-best settings, that is, when there exist market failures or distortions
besides the environmental externality. Examples are different forms of heterogeneity
combined with imperfect information, leakage effects due to jurisdictional spillo-
vers, market concentration, innovation market failures, etc. In these settings, the
fundamental research question is often whether the optimal environmental tax devi-
ates from the ‘Pigouvian level’—and in what direction (Aronsson and Sjögren 2018;
Cremer etal. 2003; Jacobs and De Mooij 2015; Jacobs and van der Ploeg 2019;
Parry 1995; Requate 2005a, 2005b; Van der Ploeg 2016).
These findings confirm, rather than disprove, the Pigouvian idea, as the underly-
ing principle corresponds to Pigou’s approach of setting a tax that maximizes wel-
fare. In that sense, Pigou’s claim that “there will be certain rates of tax [that] would
increase […] economic welfare; and one rate of tax, which would have the optimum
effect in this respect” also holds in second-best settings. Hence, the widespread
convention of equating the ‘Pigouvian tax’ with marginal environmental damages,
rather than the optimal second-best tax rate, fails to do justice to Pigou’s work.
In what follows, we, therefore, consider a broader definition of Pigouvian pricing
policies, namely those that maximize welfare (in either first-best or second-best
settings).
Notwithstanding the strong economic argument for Pigouvian pricing, environ-
mental policy in many countries has been dominated by regulation, standards, and,
in some cases, emission trading schemes (Cullenward and Victor 2020; Keohane
1 Pigou citing this report shows that he did not only expatiate upon environmental problems within a
theoretical framework, but that he also thought about ways of using empirical data to estimate environ-
mental damages (Sandmo 2015).
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etal. 1997). Despite strong support for stricter environmental policy, we see little
public support for using environmental taxes (European Commission 2019)—nei-
ther for estimated second-best tax rates, nor for estimated first-best Pigouvian taxes.
There are only few examples of Pigouvian taxes that attempt to reflect marginal
social benefits—the US oil extraction tax to pay a fund for cleaning up oil pollution
accidents is a rare example, where the tax rate is determined by a social cost consid-
eration (Masur and Posner 2015). Even if taxes or levies are set to reduce environ-
mental pollution, they are often based on political considerations rather than on rig-
orous assessments of the marginal social cost. Hence, many taxes that are part of the
environmental policy mix, if they can be called Pigouvian at all, do not reflect the true
marginal social costs—but the balance of political power of different interest groups.
Similarly, energy and fuel taxes are often below their Pigouvian optimum (Coady etal.
2018) when taking into account the externalities associated with global warming or
local air pollution. Globally, most taxes on fossil energy (irrespective of whether they
are explicitly targeted at carbon emissions or not) are still far below the social cost of
carbon (see Fig.1). In some cases, the effective carbon price is even negative due to
subsidies on fossil fuels (not shown in Fig.1 due to data reasons). The International
Energy Agency estimates that annual global expenditures for subsidies on fossil fuels
averaged approximately US$ 340 billion in the period from 2016 to 2019.2 Similar to
fuel taxes, taxes on tobacco and alcohol are often set based on revenue motives (Masur
and Posner 2015). While some countries, like the US and the UK, require regulatory
Fig. 1 Effective carbon prices resulting from existing excise taxes, duties and carbon prices on fossil
energy. Source: own figure based on OECD’s effective carbon rate data in Kalkuhl etal. (2018) and tem-
perature-related social costs of carbon (Kalkuhl and Wenz, 2020). Note that subsidies on fossil fuels are
not included in this figure
2 See the IEA’s fossil fuel subsidies data base, https ://www.iea.org/topic s/energ y-subsi dies (accessed on
November 12, 2020).
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impact assessments of social costs and benefits of policy proposals, the latter have
rarely resulted in taxes that conform to Pigouvian pricing principles. Instead, these
assessments, more often than not, merely rationalize other environmental policies, such
as fuel efficiency standards.
Pigou’s work is still of utmost relevance today, especially since the chasm between
the theory of Pigouvian pricing and its political implementation remains significant, as
the above examples illustrate. Large market failures remain unaddressed—among them
the adverse effects of greenhouse gas emissions, the loss of biodiversity and the under-
provision of public goods related to innovation, knowledge and health services (e.g.,
vaccination).
In this article, we will revisit the relevance of the Pigouvian pricing principle for
contemporary economic research and policy-making by defending two basic claims:
1. While economists are right to believe Pigouvian taxes to be theoretically desir-
able, they are also prone to overlooking the significant theoretical problems that
Pigouvian taxes still face. Paying scant attention to these conceptual problems is,
however, likely to impede their implementation in practice.
2. The widely held belief that Pigouvian taxes are ‘politically infeasible’ rests on a
rather flimsy factual basis—as is borne out by an increasing number of countries
adopting carbon prices.
These two claims imply that the widespread consensus, namely that Pigouvian taxes
are theoretically desirable, yet politically infeasible, throws a spanner in the works
of scientific progress. Specifically, holding on to this consensus impedes necessary
research into conceptual problems, whilst inducing economists to abandon welfare-
maximizing policies too readily, instead accepting politically less demanding options.
Both tendencies cause additional deadweight losses to societies.
We will focus on the case of climate change due to the ongoing political ambitions
to limit greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in many countries and the lessons learned
from successful and failed attempts to price carbon. We will use the term Pigouvian
taxation to refer to direct pricing policies, such as taxes and levies—as opposed to indi-
rect pricing via emissions certificate trading. A price collar is subsumed under direct
pricing.
The remainder of this article is structured as follows: We outline key conceptual
challenges for implementing Pigouvian taxes (Sect.2), we then discuss how current
climate policy has increasingly moved toward Pigouvian principles and carbon pricing
(Sect.3), and finally suggest a research agenda (Sect. 4) for addressing remaining barri-
ers to make Pigouvian pricing a common political practice. We conclude (Sect.5) with
some reflections on the legacy of Pigou’s work for contemporary economic policy.
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2 Barriers toimplementing Pigouvian taxes andsubsidies
There is a broad consensus on the theoretical optimality of Pigouvian taxes among a
diverse set of economic, political and philosophical thinkers.3 However, implement-
ing Pigouvian taxes and subsidies is fraught with several theoretical and political
challenges that have often impeded their use in favor of other regulatory measures.
In the following, we will briefly sketch these challenges.
2.1 Uncertainties aboutmarginal benefits, e.g., thesocial cost ofcarbon
A Pigouvian tax on carbon emissions has to be set equal to the social cost of carbon
(SCC), which refers to the discounted marginal damages from a marginal increase in
carbon emissions along a pre-defined emission path. Uncertainties about the social
cost of carbon are considerable, with values from well-established integrated assess-
ment models (IAMs) ranging from 7 US$/tCO2 in FUND (Waldhoff etal. 2011),
to 31 US$/tCO2 in DICE (Nordhaus 2017) and much higher values exceeding 100
US$/tCO2 obtained from recent econometric analyses (e.g., Kalkuhl and Wenz
2020; Ricke etal. 2018) or expert surveys (Pindyck 2019). In addition to uncertain-
ties with respect to the climate system, technologies or climate damages (Gilling-
ham etal. 2018), the SCC strongly depends on normative choices regarding discount
rates (Nordhaus 2017) and equity weights (Adler etal. 2017; Anthoff and Emmer-
ling 2018).
2.2 Unclear relation betweencost–benefit analysis andcost‑effectiveness
analysis
Because of the large uncertainty range, the difficulties associated with quantifying
catastrophic risk and non-market damages as well as the elusive search for agree-
ment on fundamental normative parameters, the intergovernmental panel on climate
change (IPCC) has not used the concept of the SCC for policy advice. It has, instead,
focused on qualitative and quantitative impacts of warming for different temperature
levels. Quantity targets on emissions, temperature targets or the time when ‘carbon
neutrality’ is achieved are easier to communicate to the public—as these targets
convey a very concrete environmental outcome. The environmental implication of
a carbon price is, however, uncertain and unclear for many people. Politically, the
uncertainty associated with the SCC and the relation between cost-effectiveness
analysis (CEA) and cost–benefit analysis (CBA) has called the political viability
of Pigouvian taxation into question, as the political focus is on reducing emissions
rather than internalizing external costs. Accordingly, environmental targets play a
more important role internationally and at the EU level.
3 Among these are Milton Friedman, Joseph Stiglitz, Greg Mankiw, Bill Nordhaus, Lord Nicholas Stern
and Pope Francis.
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From an economic perspective, any emission target can—in principle—be
achieved by an emissions tax. The emissions tax is a cost efficient instrument for
achieving the target, even if it is not optimal from a social welfare perspective (Bau-
mol and Oates 1971). In this respect, a welfare-maximizing approach and a cost-
efficiency approach may imply the same choice of the policy instruments, although
tax levels—and the procedure of their adjustments—may differ.
Besides these seemingly subtle differences between a target-based (CEA) and a
welfare-based (CBA) approach, it remains unclear for many economists how to rec-
oncile the two concepts. Typically, studies a priori decide to follow either the one
or the other approach. However, both approaches can inform and strengthen each
other. A politically set climate target that deviates strongly from a welfare-maxi-
mizing climate target constitutes an inconsistency that should be resolved. The dis-
crepancy reflects to some extent the limited possibilities to incorporate deep uncer-
tainty, systemic risks or non-market damages into traditional cost–benefit modeling.
As economists have started to incorporate these aspects into their models, optimal
temperature targets have often decreased and the SCC increased, implying a nar-
rowing gap between political targets and welfare-optimal targets (Dietz and Ven-
mans 2019; Hänsel etal. 2020; Lemoine and Traeger 2014, 2016a, 2016b). Thus,
the long-standing discrepancy has inspired economic works to account for vari-
ous aspects of global warming that had previously been neglected. But politically
set targets should also be adjusted to new insights from cost–benefit analyses. For
example, cost–benefit analyses could help us identify the conditions and normative
assumptions required for more stringent climate targets like the 1.5°C target to be
welfare-optimal.
The difference between target-based and welfare-optimization-based approaches
diminishes if targets are understood as the outcome of a decision process that
involves broader social cost–benefit considerations under uncertainty. Politically,
this implies that climate targets are considered provisional goals, which provide ori-
entation for the future development of our societies. Crucially, however, significant
political capacity is required to adjust and update these targets with new scientific
insights.
2.3 Distributional concerns
Distributional concerns are at the heart of policy-making. Pigouvian pricing there-
fore faces the challenge of ensuring an equitable distribution of the burdens it cre-
ates among heterogeneous households as well as among heterogeneous firms.
Households choose consumption baskets with strongly varying carbon intensities.
In industrialized countries, there is typically a negative correlation between income
and carbon intensity, giving rise to a regressive effect of Pigouvian carbon pricing—
an issue of vertical distribution. However, there is reason to believe that the hetero-
geneity in carbon intensity within one income group—an issue of horizontal equity
(Pizer and Sexton 2019)—is politically and economically at least as important as
the questions dealing with vertical equity. In public debates and the media, hardship
cases of households with high carbon footprints (e.g., commuters living in badly
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insulated homes) are frequently used to criticize carbon pricing on account of the
unfair distributional outcomes it engenders.
However, regressive distributional effects might turn out to be less severe when
further general-equilibrium effects are taken into account explicitly. As long as the
economy as a whole is relatively carbon-intensive, carbon taxes put a higher burden
on capital income compared to wages because capital-intensive industries are more
carbon-intensive (Goulder etal. 2019; Rausch etal. 2011).
Firms and investors, on the other hand, face the problem of stranded assets. The
threat is particularly relevant for owners of fossil resources who stand to lose large
rents (Bauer etal. 2016; Kalkuhl and Brecha 2013; van der Ploeg and Rezai 2020)—
but also for ‘brown capital’ which cannot be converted into ‘green capital’ (Kalkuhl
etal. 2020; Rozenberg etal. 2020). Moreover, the stability of the financial system
could be compromised (Carney 2016).
As a Pigouvian tax constitutes a potential Pareto-improvement, there should
theoretically be a way of redistributing the tax revenues that makes everyone bet-
ter off. Such a redistribution scheme is, however, difficult to implement given the
informational requirements, the transaction costs, potential incentive problems and
the diffuse as well as uncertain nature of various environmental damages. Because
of the direct and immediately felt costs of Pigouvian taxation, which contrast with
the more abstract and aggregate benefits, policy-makers and the public have to take
a leap of faith when putting their trust in the efficiency-enhancing impact.
The consideration of distributional effects is a prime example of Pigouvian taxes
under second-best conditions. The early works on the double dividend hypothesis,
for example, studied how environmental taxes interact with a distortionary tax sys-
tem (Bovenberg and Goulder 1996; Parry and Bento 2000; Phaneuf and Requate
2017). This strand of research assumed that lump-sum taxes are impossible and pub-
lic revenues have to be raised through distortionary labor taxes. A key question this
literature has sought to address was whether the optimal environmental tax should
be higher or lower than the marginal damages. Later works, however, have relaxed
the assumption of infeasible lump-sum transfers and added an explicit distributional
motive to the social welfare function, for example Cremer etal. (1998, 2003) and
Jacobs and van der Ploeg (2019). This setting generates an endogenous (optimal-
ity) argument to rely on distortionary income taxes for financing the government
budget. Under specific conditions, equity and efficiency can be separated (Aronsson
and Sjögren 2018, provide an excellent overview). While the optimal environmental
tax typically includes a component reflecting the marginal environmental damages,
it may also contain further terms accounting for heterogeneity of households and
overall costs of public funds.
2.4 Fragmented responsibilities
The executive branch of a typical modern (democratic) government is divided
into separate ministries. Since contemporary economies strongly depend on fos-
sil fuels as an input, multiple ministries, apart from the ministry for the environ-
ment, are responsible for mitigating the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs). The
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target-based approach mentioned above implies that national emission targets are
split into sectoral targets with specific ministries responsible for achieving ‘their’
goals. There are ministries responsible for specific GHG emitting sectors of a
national economy (transportation and infrastructure, agriculture, housing and build-
ing, industry and power) and ministries for cross-cutting areas (finance ministry,
ministry of economics, foreign ministry). Due to the lack of a ministry for climate
change mitigation, responsibilities are fragmented. The resulting lack of coordina-
tion has led to an excessive focus on sector-specific policies and technology policies.
Consequently, most carbon pricing initiatives that exist today cover only a subset
of all economic sectors. The European Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS), for
example, covers only the power sector, industry and aviation. Agriculture, transport
and the building sectors have been left out. Within these sectors, different ministries
are responsible for reducing emissions. However, these ministries are targeted by the
respective lobby groups. From a political economy perspective, ministries are likely
to provide additional subsidies when emission targets are not fulfilled. As set out in
a recent German government report, most of these subsidy schemes are ineffective
in this context (Deutsche Bundesregierung 2020).
The sectoral approach implies substantial costs that arise in virtue of the reduced
flexibility to avoid emissions where it is cheapest. Additionally, ignoring secto-
ral trade-offs, synergies and spillovers, leads to misallocation of mitigation efforts
and investments. Harmonizing carbon prices across the EU-ETS, the transport and
building sectors—that are not covered by the EU-ETS—could yield welfare gains
of more than 1%, in particular in later periods when carbon price differentials will
increase substantially (Hübler and Löschel 2013). There is further compelling theo-
retical and empirical evidence that misallocation across sectors increases not only
static mitigation costs but also reduces total factor productivity (Banerjee and
Moll 2010; Moll 2014). Implementing a carbon price therefore requires overcom-
ing the ‘divide-and-conquer’ principle of many modern bureaucracies. However, it
also implies a delegation of power as specific, previously used sectoral instruments
become obsolete under uniform and harmonized carbon pricing. Until harmonized
carbon pricing is achieved, sectoral policies will remain important, especially when
aimed at compensating carbon-intensive industries or households, addressing com-
plementary market failures and providing public goods, e.g., related to infrastruc-
ture, innovation and public investments.
2.5 Unstable tax base
One fundamental objective of every government consists in ensuring that there are
sufficient public funds to finance public goods. Pigouvian taxation, with the objec-
tive of internalizing the climate externality, would generate substantial public reve-
nues with estimates ranging from 1 to 6% of national GDP (Jakob etal. 2016; Franks
etal. 2018; Kalkuhl etal. 2018; IMF 2019a) and would thus be a part of the national
fiscal system. For those governments that have pledged to achieve carbon neutrality
by the middle of the twenty-first century the additional tax revenues associated with
environmental Pigouvian taxes are only temporary. Moreover, it is hard to predict
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how fast a given carbon tax path will lead to the desired GHG emission reductions;
it is even harder to predict the price evolution of emission certificates when, instead
of a tax, an ETS is implemented. The upshot is that greenhouse gases are an unsta-
ble tax base, which makes the construction of a general system of public finances
that is consistent with reducing emissions a non-trivial task for finance ministers.
Environmental ministers, on the other hand, are responsible for achieving the
environmental goals of emissions reduction. There is a tendency for them to choose
climate policy instruments under the constraint that costly coordination with the
ministry of finance should be avoided. Quantity instruments, standards and trading
schemes are thus preferred over carbon taxes. The problem of the unstable tax base
can thus also be understood as a problem of fragmented responsibilities.
2.6 Commitment problems
Climate policy requires a substantial shift in investments from brown to green tech-
nologies (IEA 2018; McCollum etal. 2018). Investments worth approximately 1% of
current global GDP would have to be re-directed if we are to limit the rise in global
mean temperature to 2°C. Carbon prices can only trigger such enormous shifts in
investments if they are highly credible, that is, if investors expect carbon prices to
increase over time on a trajectory that is consistent with the 2°C target. Govern-
ments have thus far lacked the ability to credibly commit themselves to such carbon
price trajectories since they are subject to the vagaries and (dynamic) inconsisten-
cies that result from electoral competition. Nor have they delegated the decision to
set carbon price paths to an independent body. This creates political uncertainty,
which undermines the dynamic efficiency of carbon pricing and slows investment
shifts and innovation.
Besides political uncertainties, time inconsistency problems further aggravate
the formation of stable expectations about announced future Pigouvian price paths.
Governments are driven by various motives. These include fiscal motives, seek-
ing specific rents from powerful economic groups and re-election motives. Each
of these three reasons alone provides an incentive to deviate from announced car-
bon price paths, rendering government decisions time-inconsistent (Harstad 2019;
Kalkuhl et al. 2020). Moreover, Pigouvian taxation for national purposes may be
misused to either mimic tariffs or extract foreign rents (Amundsen and Schöb 1999;
Franks etal. 2017).
The problem of commitment is less pronounced for standards or investment sub-
sidies—which directly affect investment decisions—but imply higher costs in reduc-
ing emissions. Likewise, sectoral mitigation targets might help to foster expectations
and commitment because they can increase the institutional incentives of ministries
to achieve these targets. The preceding shows why policy-makers tend to have little
trust that carbon prices induce dynamically efficient investment and innovation deci-
sions. This is supported by the skeptical reasoning of environmentalists or non-eco-
nomic scientists that carbon pricing is good at harvesting the currently low-hanging
fruits to mitigate emissions, but may not enable plantation of fruit trees for future
harvest (Rosenbloom etal. 2020). Without dynamically efficient and credible carbon
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prices, markets might actually favor abatement options that are dynamically inef-
ficient (Vogt-Schilb etal. 2018).
2.7 Lack ofacceptance/commodification objection
Carbon pricing and carbon markets are perceived as repugnant by some environ-
mental groups. Page (2011), for example, holds that the permit trading mechanism
established in the Kyoto Protocol erodes norms of responsibility in the future, com-
modifies the atmosphere in an illegitimate manner and erodes the environmen-
tal morale. In the same vein, Sandel (2012), raises fundamental moral objections
to market mechanisms. Moreover, in an experimental setting, Jakob et al. (2017)
have shown that market-based policies, while efficient, conflict with moral behav-
ior. According to the authors, moral responsibility induced study participants to take
inefficient actions that reduced the earnings of the whole group of participants.
2.8 Trust betweengovernments andcitizens
Klenert et al. (2018) argue that Pigouvian taxation is more acceptable to voters
when the general level of trust between citizens and government is rather high. The
recent protests of the yellow vest movement in France are a case in point, illustrating
that high levels of distrust can lead to public opposition to Pigouvian taxation. Pre-
liminary results of a recent survey-based study in France (Douenne and Fabre, 2020,
SURED Conference) show that respondents who oppose the tax tend to discard pos-
itive information about it, which would be consistent with distrust, uncertainty, or
motivated reasoning.
2.9 Incomplete international cooperation
Finally, Pigouvian taxation could work well for national environmental problems
where a national government exists. For transboundary problems, a regional or
global government would be needed to implement Pigouvian taxes. In the absence
of the latter, national governments are subject to free-rider problems. Even govern-
ments that are committed to reducing emissions are constrained by carbon leakage
problems, when implementing high carbon prices. Empirically, carbon leakage has
played only a very minor role so far (see, e.g., Naegele and Zaklan 2019). However,
with rising carbon prices, leakage might become a more severe problem (Babiker
2005).
3 Pigouvian pricing inthewild: adrama inthree acts
Despite all the challenges associated with putting Pigouvian taxes into practice, car-
bon pricing, across the world, has increased considerably since the early 1990s when
Finland and Sweden were the first countries to implement a carbon tax. According
to the World Bank’s carbon pricing dashboard, as of the year 2020, 16% of global
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GHG emissions are subject to an explicit carbon price—typically, though, at rela-
tively low levels.4 6% of emissions are regulated under carbon taxes compared to
10% under emissions trading schemes, where emission targets are set and prices
evolve endogenously.
In the following, we will focus on carbon pricing in actual modern societies. We
will trace Pigou’s legacy to Germany’s recently enacted carbon price reform (Act 1),
to the European Union’s Green Deal proposal (Act 2) and finally to reform proposals
aimed at increasing cooperation at the international level (Act 3). As was and still
is to be expected, the practical application of Pigouvian policies provides a rich set
of lessons. Hence, at the end of this section, we will discuss how much progress has
been made in overcoming the barriers that we have outlined in Sect.2 and summa-
rize the lessons learned and their implications for the future of carbon pricing. The
implementation of carbon prices is—despite widespread skepticism—a real option
for policy-makers.
3.1 Act 1: Germany’s carbon price reform
Germany provides a prime example for a recent carbon price reform, introducing a
paradigm shift in climate policy. The German case illustrates how quickly a pricing
system can be implemented that was previously assessed ‘politically infeasible’ by
many experts and economists. Policy-makers across the political spectrum as well
as the general public were extremely wary, or outright distrustful, of using price sig-
nals to promote environmental goals. For decades, the German government applied
regulation, command-and-control policies, subsidies and standards to reduce (fossil)
energy consumption. In the early 2000s, the coalition government, consisting of the
Social Democrats and the Greens, implemented an environmental tax reform that
increased energy taxes, whilst shying away from implementing economy-wide, har-
monized carbon prices, which would increase over time. Finally, in 2019, the Ger-
man government initiated a consultation process between various ministries, experts
and scientists to design a new climate policy package that would include, among
several other measures, a national carbon price for the heating and transport sectors.
The drive to pass any meaningful climate legislation was partly due to pressure
by the young generation. In particular, the Fridays for Future movement emerged
from the center of society and also managed to make parts of the (conservative)
establishment take their concerns seriously. Yet, substantial pressure also came from
the EU Effort Sharing Regulation that mandates emission reductions in the non-EU-
ETS sectors, in particular in the heating, transport and agriculture sectors.
Non-compliance with the EU Effort Sharing Regulation, which was adopted
in 2018, entails substantial costs to the respective government. A non-compliant
member state can only avoid penalty payments to the EU Commission if another
member state manages to exceed its specific targets (by emitting less than origi-
nally intended) and sells its remaining quota to the non-compliant member state.
4 Additionally taking into account other taxes and levies not explicitly targeted at GHGs results in a
higher percentage of emissions covered by effective carbon prices (see Fig.1).
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The price of such remaining quotas is highly uncertain; it is not certain whether
there will be any supply at all. In any case, the German government also feared a
strong reputation loss should it violate EU norms and not meet its self-imposed
emission target.
Early on, the government aimed at introducing a carbon price of some form to
cover the heating and the transport sectors, while GHG emission reductions in the
agriculture sector would be achieved by other means. The German debate centered
around two design questions: whether to implement a price or a quantity instru-
ment to establish a carbon price and how to use the revenues. The price vs. quantity
debate divided the respective political camps, with market liberals and conservatives
opting for a ‘marked-based’ ETS and Social Democrats favoring the ‘tax’.
The assessment by MCC and PIK, that is the Mercator Research Institute on
Global Commons and Climate Change and the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact
Research (Edenhofer et al. 2019), in combination with a report by the Economic
Advisory Council (Sachverständigenrat zur Begutachtung der gesamtwirtschaftli-
chen Entwicklung 2019), emphasized that both approaches can be designed in such
a way that very similar outcomes are achieved. In particular, the carbon tax would
require frequent adjustments if emission targets by 2030 are to be met with certainty.
The MCC-PIK assessment, however, also discussed a hybrid model starting with a
fixed-price ETS (which can be implemented rather quickly) that is then transformed
into an ETS with a price collar, once the necessary regulatory steps—particularly
the creation of infrastructure and auctioning processes—have been completed.
Starting with a fixed-price ETS, rather than a temporary carbon tax, avoids poten-
tial legal problems. German constitutional law, in fact, might not have allowed the
introduction of a direct tax on carbon emissions; rather, existing excise tax rates on
various fossil energy types could be modified and harmonized according to their
carbon content (Büdenbender 2019). The ETS with a price collar has two further
advantages. It guarantees planning reliability for investments (minimum price) and
simultaneously increases commitment and credibility of the ETS because costs can-
not increase above the maximum price.
Fig. 2 Carbon price for non-ETS sectors in Germany (own illustration, based on Edenhofer etal. 2020)
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The government decided to implement the fixed ETS price starting at 10 €/tCO2
in 2021 that will then morph into an ETS with minimum and maximum prices. The
specific levels of the carbon prices were the outcome of a political bargaining pro-
cess among coalition parties. In the ensuing legislative process, the Greens, as an
opposition party, used their leverage in the second chamber of parliament (Bun-
desrat) to increase carbon prices further. Ultimately, it was decided that the price
will start at 25 €/tCO2 in 2021, increase to 55 €/tCO2 in 2025 and, after that, the
price will be formed by the forces of supply and demand on the market for certifi-
cates, where the latter is supplemented with a price collar (Fig.2). Still, prices are
below the levels that are likely needed to achieve the reduction in emissions that the
German government has committed itself to.
The revenues of the German national carbon price are expected to make up a
significant share of total financing of the whole climate policy package. Together
with the revenues generated by the EU ETS, carbon pricing is estimated to generate
about 80% of the €62 billion that the government has allocated to public spending
over the years 2020 to 2023 for the achievement of the emission reduction targets.
The remaining 20% are financed from the general government budget. Most of the
climate-related spending is allocated to programs to reduce emissions or energy use,
e.g., in the building, industry or transport sectors. In spite of the strong emphasis on
distributional concerns in public debates, only about 25% of total spending, that is
about €15 billion over the next four years, will be used to address adverse distribu-
tional impacts (Knopf 2020).
Indeed, distributional concerns were at the center of the discourse leading up to
the adoption of the carbon pricing reform. Several proposals were made for accom-
panying measures to compensate the losers of the reform, such as commuters and
owners of badly insulated houses. The term “unsanierter Fernpendler” (long-dis-
tance commuters that live in badly insulated houses) was coined to describe the
societal group that would be hit hardest by the reform. The debates around the
reform and its distributional consequences revealed the importance of horizontal
equity concerns (see also Fischer and Pizer 2019). The option of giving back rev-
enues directly to citizens via a new transfer scheme was dismissed due to adminis-
trative hurdles and because some politicians questioned the effectiveness of carbon
prices when revenues are completely recycled back to citizens.5 Instead, the govern-
ment put together a bundle of alternative compensation measures. Of the €15 billion
in that bundle, 80% (€12 billion) are used to reduce electricity prices by lowering
the national renewable energy levy (EEG-Umlage), 7% (€1.1 billion) to increase
direct and indirect transfers to long-distance commuters and 1% (€0.2 billion) to
increase the housing allowance (Knopf 2020). Without any revenue recycling, the
carbon price would have inflicted an income loss of approximately 0.8% on low-
and middle-income households—while wealthier households would have faced only
5 Ongoing research by van der Ploeg, Rezai and Tovar (IIPF conference, 2020) also suggests a theo-
retical efficiency argument against lump-sum rebates of carbon pricing revenues. Such a scheme would
not take the labor supply reaction into account. The increase in consumer prices would effectively harm
poorer households more if lump sum transfers are used compared to a reform of non-linear income taxes.
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a 0.5% income loss (see Fig.3). The estimates provide a first-order approximation
of the distributional incidence of energy price increases, ignoring any supply- or
demand-side responses. If all revenues from the national carbon price were redis-
tributed on an equal-per-capita base (‘climate dividend’), low-income households
would benefit considerably with middle-income households being hardly affected.
Overall, with the compensation due to reduced energy prices and increased social
transfers, the lowest income group is hardly affected at all, while the middle class
bears the largest—yet still moderate—burden of the carbon price incidence. Inter-
estingly, the increase in the 2025 carbon price from 35 €/tCO2 (cabinet decision)
to 55 €/tCO2 (mediation committee between both legislative chambers) reduced the
expected costs to the poorest income group as this change also included a stronger
reduction in the energy price levy.
The levels of the German carbon price are likely too low to achieve the emission
targets mandated by the EU (see Fig.2). Yet, the reform has introduced carbon pric-
ing, along with the requisite institutional infrastructure. Correcting prices, especially
increasing them, is easier now than it was previously. After all, it is remarkable that
despite several obstacles, a Pigouvian policy has made its way through parliament
and into political practice. Distributional concerns have been taken into account and
accompanying measures implemented. Fragmented responsibilities among min-
istries have been overcome by means of an unofficial climate cabinet, with repre-
sentatives of the ministries for the environment, finance, economy, agriculture and
transport and infrastructure meeting regularly. Environmental groups, most notably
the Fridays for Future movement, strongly advocated for carbon pricing — far from
condemning the Pigouvian policy to be morally repugnant.
While there are reasons for calling the German case a success story of mitigation
policies, the policy package remains imperfect. In addition to the sub optimally low
Fig. 3 Distributional incidence of the carbon price in 2025. Own illustration, based on Edenhofer etal.
(2020). Costs indicate real income losses due to increasing energy prices
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carbon price in the German heating and transport sectors, the general problem of
sector-specific policies remains unresolved. Effective carbon prices, including, e.g.,
pre-existing energy taxes, range from around 30 €/tCO2 in the electricity and non-
electricity sectors, to more than 300 €/tCO2 in the transport sector (OECD 2018).
The question as to how to cushion the social effects of energy price increases when
carbon prices rise further and redistribution through existing channels becomes
increasingly difficult is one of the future challenges that stand in need of resolution.
3.2 Act 2: Towards acomprehensive EU carbon price
The sectoral fragmentation that plagues the German effort to decarbonize the econ-
omy is indicative of the even greater problem of sectoral fragmentation at the EU
level. This is, however, not the only challenge European climate policy faces. The
operation of the EU ETS is being disrupted by price volatility, policy-makers’ ina-
bility to commit and waterbed effects6 of national policies that interact with the trad-
ing scheme. Yet, the adoption of the European Green Deal might be an opportunity
for EU climate policy to turn the tables. As we edge ever closer to a more com-
prehensive EU ETS, we may well be witnessing a Pigouvian moment right at the
centennial of Pigou’s The Economics of Welfare. In what follows, we will critically
review the shortcomings of the EU ETS and, more generally, European climate pol-
icy. Finally, we will offer some suggestions on how to redress these shortcomings.
The most obvious inefficiency in the EU’s climate policy program is its high
degree of sectoral fragmentation. By design, the EU ETS covers only emitting enti-
ties above a certain threshold. Small installations, vehicles as well as buildings fall
through the cracks. Thus, the trading scheme effectively covers only the industry and
power sectors. The main instrument in the transport sector is a set of vehicle stand-
ards aimed at reducing emissions. Further, in the agriculture sector, the EU wide
common agricultural policy (CAP) could provide incentives to reduce emissions
through green subsidy schemes and programs. Unfortunately, the CAP is dominated
by an income transfer motive rather than by environmental objectives. Emission tar-
gets in non-ETS sectors have to be met by member states through domestic policies.
As elaborated in the preceding section, the German carbon price was a response to
the EU Effort Sharing Regulation.
Aside from sectoral policies, the EU energy directive requires minimum
energy taxes for various energy types that differ substantially when measured in
6 A waterbed effect can occur when there is an emissions trading scheme in a union of several sovereign
jurisdictions and emission certificates can be traded freely across the jurisdictions’ borders, as, e.g., in
the EU. If one of the members of the union unilaterally introduces an additional policy that effectively
reduces this member’s emissions, demand for emission certificates falls in this jurisdiction. Other juris-
dictions can now buy the newly available certificates. With the top-level policy in place, reducing emis-
sions in one jurisdiction merely leads to a relocation of emissions but not a reduction beyond the cap
mandated by the top-level policy. The relocation of emissions without total reduction is akin to pressing
down on one side of a waterbed leading to water just flowing to the other side without reducing the total
amount of water in the bed.
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carbon-content (Edenhofer etal. 2020), ranging from less than 5€/tCO2 for coal up
to almost 180 €/tCO2 for gasoline.
There is growing pressure to reform the system of overlapping policies, which
creates increasingly diverging incentives to decarbonize sectors, also implying a
divergence in implicit or explicit carbon prices.7 The pressure will increase further
as more ambitious mitigation targets are considered, which will tighten the EU 2030
reduction goal from 40% (compared to 1990 levels) to at least 55%. The EU’s Green
Deal comprises an expansion of the EU ETS to include further sectors. Hence, the
German national ETS could ultimately be integrated in the EU ETS, implying a har-
monization of carbon prices across sectors and countries.
Further reform pressure in the EU ETS arises due to the waterbed effects with
national policies, volatility of carbon prices and the inability to make credible com-
mitments. The latter two problems are intertwined. Volatile allowance prices might
reduce investment incentives and create additional economic costs (Nordhaus 2007),
thus undermining the credibility of the cap-and-trade system (Flachsland et al.
2020). On the flip side, a large source of price volatility is associated with expec-
tations and speculation about political decisions rather than changes in economic
fundamentals (Koch etal. 2016). Also, the EU ETS reduction factor of 2.2% is only
fixed until the end of Phase 4, that is, until 2030. This leaves the future development
of the cap uncertain, which further impedes investments.
The introduction of the market stability reserve has helped to increase allowance
prices recently—but the stability reserve also increased complexity in carbon price
formation (Pahle etal. 2020). It therefore remains questionable whether the reserve
can reduce price volatility (Perino and Willner 2016). A key alternative is to adopt
a price collar like other ETS (as, for example in California or in Germany), thereby
explicitly stabilizing price expectations and, concomitantly, reducing price volatility.
Another advantage of a price collar is that unilateral policies might not be com-
pletely eliminated by the waterbed effect—in particular, when the minimum price
becomes binding.
The European Green Deal will likely change the incentive structure of the Euro-
pean Commission and the EU member states. One particularly important element of
the Green Deal is the proposal to allocate 20% of EU ETS auction revenues to the
EU budget. As long as auction revenues were under the control of the EU member
states, sectoral expansion of the EU ETS and the introduction of a minimum price
would have been in their interest because it would have increased their auction rev-
enues. However, when large parts of these revenues are channeled to the EU level,
member states might be less interested in an efficiency-improving reform of the EU
ETS. Additionally, the newly tightened EU emission target provides an incentive
either to include the transport, heating and building sectors into the EU ETS or, at
least, to create a second emissions trading scheme for these sectors.
7 The transport sector is subject to both high taxes on fossil energy and efficiency standards, which are
tightened increasingly. In the building sector, there is only a set of EU minimum taxes, which are quite
low, i.e., mostly below 10 €/tCO2 (Edenhofer etal., 2020). CO2 and other GHG emissions, caused by the
agriculture sector, are not taxed at all.
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However, the EU needs additional funding to repay debt caused by the recent
COVID-19 crisis. EU member states might accept the proposal to allocate one fifth
of the auction revenues to the EU if other contributions of the EU member states
(e.g. GNI contributions) are reduced. It is worth noting that the declining tax base
makes carbon pricing attractive, even for member states that are skeptical of fund-
ing the EU budget with new resources: These revenues provide sufficient funding to
repay the EU’s coronavirus borrowing and effectively imply a sunset clause as the
tax base will eventually diminish. Additionally, climate policy can be perceived as
a genuine European public good financed by the revenues from the EU emissions
trading system (Fuest and Pisani-Ferry 2020). To conclude, the EU Green Deal has
the potential to create a Pigouvian moment within the EU.
3.3 Act 3: The role ofcarbon pricing inenhancing international cooperation
Climate policy in Germany, in the EU and in several other countries is advancing. In
a recent video address to the United Nations General Assembly, president Xi Jinping
announced China’s pledge to become carbon neutral by 2060. However, we are still
far from bending the curve of global GHG emissions. Most notably, the continued
use of coal in many developing economies is a large burden on the remaining global
carbon budget implied by the Paris Agreement. To tackle the problem of the inter-
national renaissance of coal, international negotiations are necessary. In particular,
they should focus on increasing domestic carbon minimum prices in combination
with conditional transfers that help to overcome free riding and bring down the high
cost of capital for renewable energy. Such a paradigm shift is a conditio sine qua
non for the achievement of the Paris target.
A recent calculation by Edenhofer etal. (2018) suggests that achieving the 1.5°C
target is highly compromised by the already committed emissions of existing, under
construction and planned coal-fired power plants across the world. It is worth noting
that coal is highly attractive for developing and emerging economies as investing in
renewable energy, instead of coal, entails much higher up-front capital costs. There-
fore, the relatively high interest rates in these countries reduce the incentives for
domestic green investments significantly (Best 2017; Hirth and Steckel 2016). The
implication for carbon pricing in developing countries is then that the high capital
costs lead to relatively ineffective carbon pricing, as measured by its ability to decar-
bonize the energy sector. Loans at preferential interest rates for low-carbon invest-
ments could therefore increase the penetrative power of carbon pricing substantially.
But, aside from financing low-carbon investments in countries with high capital
costs, climate policy has been paralyzed by international free-rider problems and the
absence of mechanisms to sanction free-riding and incentivize cooperation. While
the Paris Agreement was celebrated as a success of the international community,
critics argue that the agreement constitutes a Nash equilibrium with respect to the
national emission reduction pledges. While the global temperature target is ambi-
tious, the agreement lacks any strong enforcement mechanisms.
To overcome free-rider problems, a paradigm shift is necessary that moves away
from quantity targets to carbon prices as a focal point of international negotiations
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(Cramton et al. 2015; P. Cramton et al. 2017a, b). Quantity targets are plagued
by various problems, including the difficulty to measure the ‘effort’ of a country,
which depends on a counterfactual baseline and (hardly verifiable) mitigation costs.
Focusing on carbon pricing, instead, provides a clear long-term perspective for cli-
mate policy (a globally uniform carbon price that induces efficient mitigation and
avoids carbon leakage), where temporary price differentials can be tolerated. The
paradigm shift from quantities to prices also implies an overhaul of international
climate finance—which has aimed at reducing emissions (quantities) on a project
base. Within this approach, large financial flows have been generated to offset emis-
sions, e.g., by afforestation projects in developing countries. Yet, the “additional-
ity” of these projects—to what extent they have reduced emissions compared to the
counterfactual emissions—has been highly disputed. Rather than financing mitiga-
tion projects, an international climate fund should support governments by helping
them introduce or increase domestic carbon prices (Kornek and Edenhofer 2020).
This mechanism promises to be more effective in reducing emissions abroad than
project-based climate finance—and it helps to increase carbon prices and reduce
price differentials over time.
3.4 Progress made, lessons learned
We trust that the reader of the above three-act drama has developed an appreciation
of the enormous success of economic policies based on Pigou’s fundamental anal-
ysis. In a rather unlikely reversal of political fortune, carbon prices have emerged
in several countries around the globe. Their implementation might be fraught with
inefficiencies, their scope might be too narrow and their level too low. But the out-
side observer of the whole process, at all different levels, has had a highly instruc-
tive opportunity to learn about the stepping stones for overcoming the barriers men-
tioned in Sect.2. In the following, we examine each barrier and show how they have
been dealt with in Germany and by the EU. In presenting the lessons learned, we
hope to distill guidelines for the future of carbon pricing and its role in avoiding
dangerous climate change (see Table1).
Uncertainty about mitigation costs and benefits (social cost of carbon) is met by
setting quantity targets for emission reductions, while complementing them with
minimum and maximum prices. At the EU level, the targets are determined by the
EU’s commitments, as enshrined in the Paris Agreement and the aim of the global
community to avoid ‘dangerous’ climate change. Germany, then, has derived its
pricing policies from the quota the EU has allocated to Germany.
Distributional concerns have been mostly dealt with at the national level. Ger-
man policy-makers decided against the much-discussed tax-and-dividend approach,
instead opting for reducing regressive energy taxes and large green spending
programs.
There are reasons to expect that the sectoral fragmentation at the EU level
will be ameliorated by an incremental integration of the current non-ETS sec-
tors into the trading scheme. The German case is particularly interesting as the
government has established a coordinating institution at the highest level of the
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Table 1 Barriers and solutions in Germany and the EU
Problem Stepping stones toward a solution Further recommendations
In Germany In the EU
Uncertainty about costs and benefits Price collar with minimum and maxi-
mum prices
Not yet addressed; price collar for EU-
ETS is a reform option
Consider rules-based approaches to adjust
carbon prices and the social cost of
carbon
Unclear relation between CEA and CBA Focus on EU-based quantity targets Quantity targets (EU’s NDC) as vision
resulting from societal discourse on
risk management
Frequent updating of mitigation costs and
damages; exploring the optimality of
policies with different social welfare
functions
Distributional concerns No per-capita recycling, but reduction of
regressive energy taxes
Effort Sharing Regulation with differen-
tiated efforts; future: allocation of EU
ETS revenues to solve distributional
conflicts
Need for more research on horizontal
equity, volatility of carbon pricing
revenues and intertemporal allocation of
revenues and debts, in particular w.r.t.
carbon dioxide removal
Inefficient sector-specific policies "Climate Cabinet "—instead of frag-
mented responsibilities of ministries
Incremental integration of EU ETS and
non-EU-ETS into one common carbon
market
Pursue efforts to mainstream climate
change in overall policy-making (e.g.,
via Coalition of Finance Ministers and
similar approaches); consider establish-
ment of inter-agency institution for
coordinating trade-offs and synergies
between ministries and government
divisions
Unstable tax base Use of revenues for green spending, and
temporary transfers rather than income
tax cuts
Use revenues for financing ‘projects’
(COVID recovery)
Consider lump-sum redistribution of car-
bon tax revenues, as e.g., in Switzerland
Commitment device The EU Effort Sharing Regulation; in
future also the EU Green Deal
Still missing; but changes in policies
require qualified majority or consensus
among member states
Delegation of power to an independent
carbon bank could be preferable under
certain conditions
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Table 1 (continued)
Problem Stepping stones toward a solution Further recommendations
In Germany In the EU
Repugnant markets Price floor mimics direct pricing Future minimum price could mimic
direct pricing
Consider intelligent design to commu-
nicate carbon prices, e.g., via framing
and labeling. Mainstream economic
discussions about climate change in
public debates
Lack of trust in government Public debate and scientific assessment
about different policies and their
impact on emissions, distribution and
costs
The EU Green Deal providing a genuine
European public good financed by
auction revenues
Need for joint learning process among
scientists, policy-makers and citizens
about different perceptions of fairness,
trade-offs and functioning of specific
policy measures
International cooperation - Explicit and implicit transfers to member
states
Link climate finance and international
transfers to the introduction of increas-
ing carbon prices in other countries
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executive branch. A so-called “Climate Cabinet” was formed that convened all
ministries with responsibilities for national climate policy. This facilitated coor-
dination of policies across sectoral boundaries. Internationally, a Coalition of
Finance Ministers for Climate Action has emerged, which has committed itself to
the so-called Helsinki Principles, one of which states that this group is to “work
towards measures that result in effective carbon pricing”. This could also improve
intra-governmental coordination, especially between the ministries of finance and
of the environment.
The problem of the unstable tax base has, thus far, been addressed by earmarking
the revenues for specific projects or temporary expenses, special-purpose funds or
simple lump-sum transfers to citizens. Examples include the national Swiss carbon
price, California’s Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund, Chile’s Economic and Social
Stabilization Fund and the revenue volatility management that France has imple-
mented to deal with EU ETS auction revenues (World Bank 2019).
The lack of trust in government, in general, and in carbon pricing, in particu-
lar, remains an enormous challenge for economists, other experts, and the interac-
tion between the latter and policy-makers. Here, substantial efforts are needed to
start a joint learning process among scientists, policy-makers and citizens about dif-
ferent perceptions of fairness, trade-offs and functioning of specific policy meas-
ures (Kowarsch etal. 2016). Deliberative learning processes could help to improve
the outcome of government processes and increase trust in government decisions.
Empirically, there is a significant positive correlation between trust in governments
and the quality of institutions, on the one hand, and carbon price levels, on the other
(Klenert etal. 2018; Levi etal. 2020).
On the problem of repugnant markets, recent research on financial incentives
and moral behavior suggests that direct pricing through taxes is better at tapping
into moral behavior and intrinsic motives to reduce emissions than indirect pric-
ing through emissions trading. In a recent experiment, Ockenfels etal. (2020) have
shown that there is a fundamental difference between direct pricing and indirect
pricing through emissions trading. While direct pricing increases voluntary abate-
ment, indirect pricing reduces the latter. Market participants understand that volun-
tary abatement in indirect pricing schemes lowers the market price and therefore
the incentive to abate. The experiment, thus, shows that a stable price incentivizes
voluntary abatement.
While these considerations suggest that carbon taxes are better able to mobilize
intrinsic moral behavior than emissions trading, labeling a Pigouvian price as ‘tax’
reduces public support significantly (Kallbekken etal. 2011). This phenomenon has
been coined tax aversion (McCaffery and Baron 2003): Just by calling a specific
instrument a tax, people tend to have negative association compared to other labe-
ling. Labeling Pigouvian taxes as ‘fees’ or ‘charges’ has therefore been suggested to
increase support (Baranzini and Carattini 2017).
Because of the European Commission’s power to use financial sanctions, the EU
climate policy constitutes a strong commitment device for national climate policies.
Nevertheless, credibility of financial sanctions might be weakened if national gov-
ernments expect also many other governments to not comply with a specific direc-
tive. Because of consensus principles in many areas, the EU climate policy exhibits
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large inertia, impeding a flexible adjustment of climate policy to new information of
technology costs, climate damages or climate policies in other countries.
4 Remaining research gaps andresearch agenda
While some progress on carbon pricing has been made, there remain some funda-
mental challenges and significant gaps in our understanding of the theoretical under-
pinnings of Pigouvian pricing. Here, we will discuss the three areas that are most
pertinent to public policy and, as such, merit closer attention: Macroeconomic sta-
bility and implications of the Covid-19 pandemic; commitment and credibility of
climate policy; carbon pricing revenues and distribution.
4.1 Macroeconomic stability andimplications oftheCovid‑19 pandemic
The economic downturn caused by measures to contain the Covid-19 pandemic has
demonstrated the momentous nature of global economic shocks. GHG emissions
have fallen significantly. Unfortunately, this temporary, lockdown-induced decline
only took us to the level of emissions produced in 2006 (Le Quéré etal. 2020)—and
emissions have, historically, quickly started rising after crises (Peters etal. 2012).
More importantly, the shock of the pandemic highlights the vulnerability of finan-
cial markets to tail events (Schnabel 2020).
While carbon pricing dominates the debate about climate policy instruments,
finance experts increasingly argue for systematically assessing other options to
enhance mitigation efforts and to incorporate risks of climate impacts as well as mit-
igation policies into broader macroeconomic policies (Campiglio 2016; IMF 2019b;
Schnabel 2020). In this respect, there are three different types of macroeconomic
policies: Fiscal policy, financial policy and monetary policy. Optimal carbon pric-
ing, a fiscal policy tool, is a necessary condition for the market failure caused by
GHG emissions to be corrected. Additionally, governments might have to increase
spending for the energy transition, e.g., related to public goods like infrastructure or
innovation.
However, fiscal policy likely has to be complemented by financial and monetary
policy tools in order to facilitate private finance flows directed at low carbon invest-
ments and to mitigate systemic risks associated with climate policy. These systemic
risks arise due to tail events related to physical climate impacts, green technology
breakthroughs or bursting fossil asset price bubbles (Bolton et al. 2020). Finan-
cial policy can help redress the underpricing and the lack of transparency of cli-
mate risks. It can also address short-term biases, improve governance frameworks
of financial institutions, support the development of green financial securities and
promote climate finance.
Carbon pricing as well as climate impacts might have strong impacts on relative
prices and, thus, inflation levels (Diluiso etal. 2020). Therefore, they strongly inter-
act with Central Banks’ mandate of price stability. Optimal financial portfolios are
often determined by backward-looking assessments of returns. Climate change and
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climate policy require forward-looking models and scenario approaches for man-
aging financial portfolios—by financial investors as well as central banks (Bolton
etal. 2020). Moreover, green quantitative easing and collateral frameworks could be
established and combined with appropriate credit allocation policies to avoid invest-
ments into fossil-based capital stocks (IMF 2019b). The ECB, for example, is taking
first steps to improve disclosure requirements and to reduce informational inefficien-
cies, but may also consider excluding bonds that conflict with the decarbonization
objectives of the EU—a step that will be discussed by the ECB Governing Council
at the next monetary policy strategy review (Schnabel 2020). The literature offers
little insights into frameworks for discussing the most effective policy mix of these
tools. The coordination of instruments seems, however, very important, in particular
owing to the unprecedented scale of climate change. Moreover, there is an important
concern that central banks might overstep their mandate when engaging actively in
climate policy, filling the fiscal and environmental policy gaps arising from insuf-
ficient government action (EPP Group in the European Parliament 2020). In par-
ticular, central banks might not be able to achieve multiple objectives when a clear
mechanism to evaluate trade-offs is missing and banks lack the requisite tools for
effectively addressing each objective (Dikau and Volz 2020).
4.2 Commitment andcredibility ofclimate policy
Improving commitment and credibility in climate policy and carbon pricing remains
an important challenge. Under certain circumstances, it is preferable to delegate
decisions and responsibilities to a technocratic body in order to remove decisions
from direct political influence. Economic theory has provided some general insights,
which can be applied to climate policy (Benassy-Quere etal. 2019). Based on these
considerations, an independent European carbon bank might be a preferable option
to strengthen commitment if the following conditions are fulfilled:
1. The emission reductions pathway or the carbon budget is well-defined by legiti-
mate democratic institutions. This implies that the ultimate goals of climate policy
are determined by democratically elected governments.
2. The performance criteria for implementing policy instruments are well-under-
stood. The carbon bank administers the auctioning process of permits, implements
a minimum price and manages the inclusion of all relevant sectors. Additionally,
the carbon bank provides subsidies to negative emission technologies. It also has
to approve and regulate new negative emission technologies according to politi-
cally determined criteria, monitor relevant secondary market failures that impede
the effectiveness of carbon pricing and assess whether investments into fossil and
carbon-free technologies are consistent with the overall long-term climate goal.
3. The carbon bank acts independently of any revenue objectives and is independ-
ent from lobbying by firms or national governments, as this increases the risk of
time-inconsistent carbon pricing (Kalkuhl etal. 2020). The institutional design
has to ensure this independence.
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1 3
4. The carbon bank does not consider distributional effects between member states
or among the income distribution as part of their mandate to avoid following
multiple objectives. National governments are responsible for addressing dis-
tributional effects within their jurisdictions via their national tax systems. Dis-
tributional impacts across countries, in particular concerning the revenues from
carbon prices (e.g., due to adjusting the cap or the minimum price), should be
governed by pre-defined effort sharing principles, which member states agreed
upon. The intergenerational distribution is determined by an efficient dynamic use
of the carbon budget and the net negative emission technologies. Both have to be
adjusted when new scientific information about climate impacts and mitigation
costs become available. Ideally, the adjustment is based on pre-defined rules.
5. A minimum price within the EU emissions trading scheme might allow consid-
ering idiosyncratic preferences of the EU member states on climate mitigation.
Complementary policies of EU member states are less distortionary compared
to a trading scheme without minimum prices.
It is debatable whether an institution, like an independent carbon bank, can be
designed according to the above principles, thereby reducing the vulnerability to
time inconsistency. Two fundamental research questions have to be answered: First,
what is the optimal degree of ‘delegation’ with regard to the unavoidable trade-off
between investment security and democratic principles to adjust policies? Second,
what are optimal rules for setting carbon prices or price collars? In particular, the
optimal rules must determine how marginal costs and benefits are measured—and
how domestic carbon prices are strategically linked to carbon prices in other coun-
tries to enhance international coordination.
4.3 Carbon pricing revenues anddistribution
Finally, more attention should be paid to the question of integrating carbon pricing
within the broader fiscal systems of (national) governments. In particular, there is a
need for more research on questions of horizontal equity of carbon pricing, the vola-
tility of carbon pricing revenues and intertemporal allocation of revenues and debts
associated with Pigouvian policies.
There is already some research on the public economics of climate change that
examines the fiscal properties of carbon pricing (de Mooij etal. 2012; Edenhofer
etal. 2017; Jones etal. 2013; Siegmeier etal. 2018). Pigouvian taxation has also
been studied in optimal taxation frameworks (for an excellent overview, see Arons-
son and Sjögren 2018), where most attention has been given to the double dividend
hypothesis (Goulder etal. 2016) and distributional effects with respect to different
incomes (e.g., Jacobs and van der Ploeg 2019).
However, most models used to study the role of carbon pricing for the optimal
tax portfolio are limited to income distributions along the vertical dimension, that is,
between different income groups. Little is known about horizontal equity between
heterogeneous households of the same income decile (Atkinson and Stiglitz 1976;
Fischer and Pizer 2019), even though empirical studies have demonstrated that
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Pigou inthe21st Century: atribute ontheoccasion ofthe100th…
distributional impacts of climate policy within income groups show the largest vari-
ation (Cronin etal. 2018; Pizer and Sexton 2019; Poterba 1991; Rausch etal. 2011).
Moreover, a finance ministry seeking to integrate carbon pricing within the gen-
eral system of public finance will very likely have to deal with the problem of man-
aging an uncertain and potentially volatile revenue stream. This is due to (a) the
unknown impact of carbon pricing on the economy (e.g., the speed of its decarboni-
zation) and (b) the imperfect political process of implementing carbon pricing (e.g.,
how quickly effective price levels and full sectoral coverage can be reached). Man-
aging such uncertainties sustainably remains an open research question.
Finally, to reach ambitious mitigation targets, mitigation scenarios show the
importance of carbon dioxide removal (CDR) technologies (Strefler et al. 2018).
In contrast to the harmful over-production of GHG emissions by private agents,
such CDR technologies are subject to a harmful under-provision by private mar-
kets. Hence, theory tells us that Pigouvian subsidies are required. This raises several
questions about optimal fiscal policy. For example, it is unclear how to generate the
necessary public funds to finance such subsidies. It is also unclear how to achieve
optimal intertemporal smoothing of the streams of public income and public debt
associated with Pigouvian policies.
5 Conclusions
The challenges of Pigouvian taxation should not be dismissed too easily. There are,
indeed, thorny problems—both of a political and theoretical nature—that cast doubt
on the political feasibility of Pigouvian taxation: uncertainties about marginal social
benefits; moral objections to putting a price tag on environmental goods and ser-
vices; coordination and responsibility problems within governments; a lack of abil-
ity to commit to Pigouvian pricing principles; a lack of trust in effectiveness and
fairness of a Pigouvian tax, even when supplemented with sophisticated compensa-
tion schemes; the diminishing tax base demanding frequent adjustments in the gov-
ernment budget; and lastly, international cooperation on climate policy that has been
notoriously hard to achieve.
But an excessive focus on the challenges of Pigouvian taxation unjustly disre-
gards the growing political successes of carbon pricing. Today, 100years after the
publication of Pigou’s magnum opus, we see remarkable success stories, even under
second-best conditions. There is a Pigouvian moment within the EU, as evidenced
by its ambitious climate targets. The momentum is, however, still fragile and needs
to be solidified as part of the next reform steps.
The fragility of Pigou’s success becomes apparent when considering recent
criticisms of carbon pricing. The latter charge Pigouvian taxation with either being
‘politically infeasible’ (Bell 2018; Cullenward and Victor 2020; Heal 2020) or, at
best, achieving marginal improvements, while failing to implement an all-encom-
passing transformation of our societies to carbon neutrality (Rosenbloom et al.
2020). Nevertheless, such critiques often remain silent when it comes to the eco-
nomic costs and distributional effects of alternative paradigms. Given that there is no
clear consensus on the more general drivers of ‘political feasibility’, it also remains
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1 3
unclear how to evaluate the political feasibility of alternative paradigms rigorously.
As the reflections on the double dividend and the distributional effects have shown,
it is useful to broaden prevailing economic models by endogenizing aspects that had
been considered an exogenous constraint. This approach of considering multiple dis-
tortions actually corresponds to the Pigouvian principle of determining the level of
tax that maximizes welfare.
A key political and institutional challenge consists in enhancing state capacity to
assess and monitor market failures and externalities in a rigorous and comprehensive
way. Governments devote much effort to collecting data on economic indicators, like
GDP, employment, inflation, prices and expenditures. Yet, governments often lack
a basic understanding of the size of market failures and externalities that deprive
their citizens of their economic potential. An institution, tasked with rigorously and
regularly assessing externalities, is a pre-condition for increasing the political feasi-
bility of Pigouvian pricing. This is also important with respect to identifying related
market failures that dilute the power of Pigouvian pricing (e.g., principal-agent or
information problems in the building sector) as well as responding swiftly to new
externalities that might be triggered by addressing other externalities (e.g., biodiver-
sity losses due to increased biomass use under high carbon prices).
We conclude our tribute to Arthur Cecil Pigou with an invitation to follow his
lead by tying rigorous economic theory to the pressing issues of our time and by
making it relevant to actual modern societies. Economists can help significantly to
enhance the implementation of the Pigouvian legacy by addressing research gaps
related to the macroeconomic dimensions of Pigouvian taxation, by finding ways
of enhancing commitment as well as setting up compensation schemes that are
consistent with various normative principles. And they should rigorously compare
Pigouvian approaches with alternative paradigms that seem to be politically less
demanding. The latter is indispensable to enable a deliberative public discourse on
efficient and fair environmental policy—and to increase trust in economists, experts
and advisors. These steps are vital if we are to follow Pigou’s example as a public
intellectual, attuned to the subtleties of the academic literature, cognizant of politi-
cal realities and passionate about helping our societies deal with economic, environ-
mental and broader societal problems.
Acknowledgments We thank Maximilian Amberg and Susanne Stundner for excellent research assis-
tance. Jacob Edenhofer, Nils May and an anonymous referee have provided very helpful comments.
Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as
you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-
mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is
not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission
directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen
ses/by/4.0/.
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Authors and Affiliations
OttmarEdenhofer1,2,3· MaxFranks2,3 · MatthiasKalkuhl1,4
1 Mercator Research Institute On Global Commons andClimate Change (MCC), Torgauer Str.
12-15, 10829Berlin, Germany
2 Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17, Juni 135, 10623Berlin, Germany
3 Potsdam Institute forClimate Impact Research, Telegraphenberg A 31, 14473Potsdam,
Germany
4 Faculty ofEconomic andSocial Sciences, University ofPotsdam, August-Bebel-Straße 89,
14482Potsdam, Germany
