energies
Review
Is Ghana Ready to Attain Sustainable Development
Goal (SDG) Number 7?—A Comprehensive
Assessment of Its Renewable Energy Potential
and Pitfalls
Michael Acheampong 1,*, Qiuyan Yu 2, Funda Cansu Ertem 3, Lucy Deba Enomah Ebude 2,
Shakhawat Tanim 2, Michael Eduful 2, Mehrdad Vaziri 2and Erick Ananga 4
1Department of Geography, Oklahoma State University, 360 Murray Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
2College of Arts and Sciences, School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue,
3Department of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Ackerstr. 76, ACK24, 13355 Berlin, Germany;
4Department of Political Science and Legal Studies, East Central University, 1100 E. 14th St, Ada, OK 74820,
USA; [email protected]
*Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-347-759-4392
Received: 14 December 2018; Accepted: 24 January 2019; Published: 28 January 2019
Abstract:
Ghana has declared support for the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) number
seven which most importantly target ensuring universal access to affordable, reliable and modern
energy services. This target presents a formidable challenge to Ghana because the country still relies
mainly on traditional biomass as its primary source of energy coupled with a chronically fragile
hydropower sector. In this study, we assess Ghana’s potential in achieving sustainable goal number
seven. Specifically, we comprehensively review the breakthroughs and impediments Ghana has
experienced in its efforts towards improving its renewable energy potential. We note that while
Ghana has made significant stride toward attaining energy efficiency, its effort at large-scale biofuel
development hit a snag due to issues of “land grabbing” emanating both from local and foreign
entities. In another breadth, several pilot studies and research initiatives have demonstrated the
possibility of diversifying the energy sector with other renewable energy options including solar, wind,
and small hydro. In spite of challenges encountered with the development of biofuels, our review
concludes that Ghana retains vast reserves of renewable energy potential, which can be harnessed
with the constantly improving technological advancements as it pursues SDG number seven.
Keywords: renewable energy; Ghana; sustainable development goals; biofuel; solar energy
1. Introduction
The 1970s oil crisis, the declining fossil fuel reserves, as well as global climate change has made
many countries to seek low carbon alternatives to their energy supply [
1
–
6
]. Indeed, today many
countries around the world continue to invest in energy supply. These efforts are supported by
the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report
(AR5) [
2
,
7
–
10
]. The report emphasizes the need for nations especially those in the developing world
to find alternatives to the traditional fossil fuel-driven civilization. Accordingly, the IPCC therefore
recommends as a policy that in order to forestall some of the most egregious consequences of climate
change, at least 80 percent of global energy supply must be based on renewables by 2050 [2,11].
Energies 2019,12, 408; doi:10.3390/en12030408 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2019,12, 408 2 of 40
In recent years, different international treaties such as the Kyoto Protocol and other climate-related
agreements have urged some countries to develop comprehensive policies and strategic mechanisms to
accelerate the movement towards the era of low- or zero-carbon energy economies [
1
,
12
]. For instance,
Brazil was already fueling 46 percent of its domestic energy supply from renewable sources by the year
2007 [
13
]. The European Union (EU) has also responded to these calls by introducing the “20-20-20”
climate targets. In this vision, the EU member countries committed to the goal of reducing their GHG
emissions by 20 percent in 2020 compared to 1990 levels, by increasing the share of renewable energy
to total energy supply to 20 percent [
2
,
14
–
16
]. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) defined in
Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol allows industrialized countries to earn certified emission reduction
(CER) credits by supporting emission-reduction projects in developing countries [
1
,
12
,
17
]. This was
to give flexibility to industrialized nations towards achieving their Kyoto emission reduction targets
while promoting development in developing countries, especially those located in Africa south of the
Sahara [9].
The challenges that plague sub-Saharan Africa are not necessarily unique. Mainly, the lack of
access to electric grids at a reasonable price inflicts the most damage to sub-Saharan African countries,
including Ghana [
18
]. According to IEA [
19
], three billion people around the world still rely on
traditional biomass for cooking and heating. An average household in sub-Sahara is estimated to
spend more than 30 percent of their budget on biomass fuel. This trend is projected to remain if no
serious action is taken by the affected countries. In fact, the IEA [
19
] forecast that sub-Saharan Africa
along with South Asia remain the only regions of the world where consumption of traditional biomass
for energy will likely increase rather than decrease by 2030.
Ghana’s problem mimics the sub-Saharan picture. Like most countries in African and South Asia,
energy demand due to population explosion poses a significant policy and climate challenge. In Ghana,
a majority of households depend on biomass as the main source of energy, which is associated with
several environmental, health, and social effects [
18
,
20
]. Additionally, Ghana’s once abundant and
reliable hydropower has shown signs of stress under the pressure of increasing population and aging
equipment, leading the country to increasingly rely on thermal power plants to support electricity
generation [
4
,
9
,
21
]. While the introduction of thermal power plants has helped fill some of the gaps in
Ghana’s electrification, it has also contributed to increasing the price of electricity, without necessarily
being able to contain the chronic energy crisis the country has contended with in the past few years.
This has happened despite the fact that Ghana recently discovered commercial quantities of oil,
which together with a cheap natural gas supply from Nigeria supports its fossil-based electricity
production [5,21,22].
Load shedding (“dumsor” as known in local slang) combined with the constantly depleting
firewood in remote areas, as a result of unregulated exploitation of trees, challenges Ghana
to aggressively pursue renewable energy alternatives. Therefore, increasing renewable energy
performance in the country to diversify its electricity supply has become a top policy agenda for the
government. In the National Energy Strategy of 2010, Ghana set a target of achieving universal access
to electricity by the year 2020. The scientific community has long established the energy-development
nexus. Sustainable energy supply is therefore recognized as an important catalyst for sustainable
development, as it directly impacts important development indicators such as the quality of health,
education and water supply among others [18,23].
During the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) era, while there were no specific targets set
for energy, it was acknowledged that reliable and socially acceptable energy services were a prerequisite
for attainment for the set goals [
2
,
4
,
18
,
22
]. However, in the new era of Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), the United Nations (UN) took the critical step to emphasize the need for renewable and
sustainable energy sources to support global goals through the Secretary-General’s Sustainable Energy
for All initiative, by outlining targets in goal number seven [
2
,
24
]. Among the specific targets are
the following: (a) ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services; (b) to
substantially increase the share of renewable energy to global energy mix by 2030; (c) to double the
Energies 2019,12, 408 3 of 40
rate of improvement of energy efficiency in countries around the globe by 2030; (d) to facilitate access
to renewable and clean energy technology and promote investment in energy infrastructure by 2030;
and (e) to increase supply of modern and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries
through infrastructure expansion and technology upgrade by 2030 [24].
To achieve the SDG number seven targets, Ghana has to mobilize all available resources in the
direction of harnessing its renewable energy potential [
25
]. With less than 25 percent of its original
forest currently standing, and having stretched the limits of its hydro-and-thermal power plants,
the country is in dire need of new energy innovation. A study by Deichmann et al. [
12
] support this
initiative by revealing the important role that decentralized renewable energy can play if a country
like Ghana will achieve the overarching goal of sustainable energy for all.
Based on this foundation, this review is taken with an overall goal of examining Ghana’s renewable
energy potential as envisaged by SDG number seven. Specifically, we investigate the trend in Ghana’s
energy consumption; and the feasibility and extent to which renewable energy can support the
nation developmental goals and carbon emission reduction. The paper is organized as follows.
After the introduction, we present a description of the study area. In the third section, we present
an overview of Ghana’s energy sector. Fourth, we undertake a comprehensive review and a critical
appraisal of Ghana’s renewable energy drive, as well as the adoptability of other novel concepts and
technologies in Ghana pursuit of SDG number seven. In the fifth section, implications for increasing
uptake of renewable energy in Ghana is documented. The sixth section presents prospects and
challenges for Ghana in the course of achieving the SDG goal. Section 7summarizes the article,
while recommendations for policy and future research directions are presented in section eight.
2. Study Area and Methodology
2.1. Overview of Ghana
Ghana is located in the western part of the African continent. It borders Ivory Coast to the
west; Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. The country
encompasses a total land mass of approximately 239,460 km
2
which is divided into ten administrative
regions. Currently, Ghana’s population stand at 27 million of which 55% of the people live in urban
centers. Two of the biggest cities, Kumasi and Accra, account for nearly 20 percent of the total country
population. The population is projected to grow at 2 percent per annum [26,27].
Ghana’s economy is largely informal. Most people mainly rely on small scale agriculture and
domestic trading. In fact, Agriculture employs 60 percent of the work force. The remaining group are
either employed in industry (29 percent) or the service sector [
20
,
27
–
29
]. Agriculture alone contributes
40 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) and 35 percent to total export earnings [
20
,
22
,
27
–
30
].
The two most important crops in Ghana are maize and cocoa [
20
]. However, historically gold and
cocoa are known to have contributed most in foreign exchange earnings [27].
Agricultural land makes up about 148,500 km
2
of the total land area (Table 1) [
27
,
31
,
32
]. Ghana’s
agriculture is largely rain dependent. There are six distinct agro-ecological zones that make up the
country (Sudan Savanna, Guinea Savanna, Transition, Semi-deciduous Forest, Rain Forest, and Coastal
Savanna [20,30]). These zones are delineated based on climate, natural vegetation, and soils.
Energies 2019,12, 408 4 of 40
Table 1. Details of Land Use Characteristics [31,32].
Characteristic and Unit Size
Surface Area (km2)239,460
Agricultural Land Area (km2)148,500
Agricultural Land Area (%) 69.1
Permanent Cropland (%) 11.9
Arable Land Area (ha) 4,100,000
Arable Land Area (%) 20.7
Arable Land Area (ha per person) 0.2
Forest Land Area (km2)52,862
Forest Land Area (%) 21.2
Ghana’s industrial sector is a fledgling one that contributes about 25 percent of the GDP.
The industrial sector consist mainly of food, timber, textiles, cement, oil refinery, cement, aluminum,
and pharmaceuticals, among others [
27
,
33
,
34
]. Duku et al. [
27
] noted that poverty in Ghana displays
significant variation between sectors. The poor are predominantly concentrated in the informal sector.
Subsistence food crop farmers, who engage in farming primarily for consumption, are the poorest.
They are followed by the section of population engaged in micro- and small scale enterprises, of which
nearly 30 percent live below the poverty line [27,35–37].
2.2. Methodology
In this paper, we synthesize information obtained from several sources. These sources include
academic articles, government-level reports, research reports, agency websites, conference proceedings
and books. To obtain relevant academic literature on Ghana’s renewable energy development and
SDGs, we performed keywords searches in the most prominent search engines including Google
Scholar, Science Direct and Web of Science. To supplement information for peer-reviewed academic
literature, we also did general google search to obtain relevant non-peer reviewed publications.
Additionally, we obtained published reports from websites of several relevant agencies.
3. Overview of Energy Supply and Consumption in Ghana
Ghana’s deploys its primary energy sources for the following purposes: electricity generation,
transportation, heating, and cooking. As illustrated in Figure 1, Ghana primarily depends on biomass
for the bulk of its primary energy supply [
38
]. According to Ghana Energy Supply, energy consumption
peaked in 2008 with Biomass in the form of word and charcoal accounting for nearly 72% of primary
energy. Petroleum and electricity accounted for the remaining percentages [5,20,22,27,39].
Energies 2019, 12, 408 4 of 40
Forest Land Area (%) 21.2
Ghana’s industrial sector is a fledgling one that contributes about 25 percent of the GDP. The
industrial sector consist mainly of food, timber, textiles, cement, oil refinery, cement, aluminum, and
pharmaceuticals, among others [27,33,34]. Duku et al. [27] noted that poverty in Ghana displays
significant variation between sectors. The poor are predominantly concentrated in the informal
sector. Subsistence food crop farmers, who engage in farming primarily for consumption, are the
poorest. They are followed by the section of population engaged in micro- and small scale enterprises,
of which nearly 30 percent live below the poverty line [27,35–37].
2.2. Methodology
In this paper, we synthesize information obtained from several sources. These sources include
academic articles, government-level reports, research reports, agency websites, conference
proceedings and books. To obtain relevant academic literature on Ghana’s renewable energy
development and SDGs, we performed keywords searches in the most prominent search engines
including Google Scholar, Science Direct and Web of Science. To supplement information for peer-
reviewed academic literature, we also did general google search to obtain relevant non-peer reviewed
publications. Additionally, we obtained published reports from websites of several relevant agencies.
3. Overview of Energy Supply and Consumption in Ghana
Ghana’s deploys its primary energy sources for the following purposes: electricity generation,
transportation, heating, and cooking. As illustrated in Figure 1, Ghana primarily depends on biomass
for the bulk of its primary energy supply [38]. According to Ghana Energy Supply, energy
consumption peaked in 2008 with Biomass in the form of word and charcoal accounting for nearly
72% of primary energy. Petroleum and electricity accounted for the remaining percentages
[5,20,22,27,39].
Figure 1. Percent Contribution of Various Energy Sources to Total Energy Supply in 2008 [38].
Recent population increase coupled with urbanization has propelled the overall energy demand
in Ghana. Figure 2 depicts the pattern of growth of final energy consumption from the three main
contributors of primary energy [40]. Of the total energy consumed in the country, residential activities
take more than half.
72%
6%
22%
Percent Contribution
Biomas
s
Figure 1. Percent Contribution of Various Energy Sources to Total Energy Supply in 2008 [38].
Recent population increase coupled with urbanization has propelled the overall energy demand
in Ghana. Figure 2depicts the pattern of growth of final energy consumption from the three main
Energies 2019,12, 408 5 of 40
contributors of primary energy [
40
]. Of the total energy consumed in the country, residential activities
take more than half.
Energies 2019, 12, 408 5 of 40
Figure 2. Total Energy Consumption by Type of Energy, 2003–2014 [40,41].
3.1.Woodfuel
The high share attributed to residential activities is mainly because of woodfuel consumption at
the household level [20,42]. This is because Ghanaian households are dominated by low income
earners who primarily depend on biomass as a primary source of energy. They also employ
traditional and low-technology wood energy systems for cooking and heating [18,27]. Figure 3
indicate that the nearly 90 percent of the Ghanaian population rely on woodfuels for cooking, with
details of regional breakdown presented [20,22]. In 2010, Ghana Energy Commission conducted a
survey which revealed that roughly 40 percent of Ghanaian population is wholly dependent on
unprocessed firewood for cooking and heating. An average household uses about 1065 kg of
firewood yearly. However, there exist important disparities between regions and areas, as in the case
of total woodfuel. According to the survey, about 62 percent of rural population used firewood, as
compared to about 26 percent of the urban population. In a similar breadth, while urban households
consume an average of about 986 kg of firewood in a year, rural households consume an average of
1113 kg. The survey estimated about 72 percent of inhabitants in the Savannah regions use firewood
as compared to an estimated 57 percent and 52 percent for forest and coastal areas, respectively
[22,38].
Figure 3. Source of Cooking Fuels for Households in All Ten Regions in Ghana [30].
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics [33] noted that the amount of wood fuel
consumed in Ghana nearly doubled from a value of about 20 million m
3
in 2004 to over 35 million m
3
in 2008. In this period, charcoal consumption increased from about 750 thousand m
3
to 1.5 million
m
3
. It is further noted that about 90 percent of all wood fuels consumed in Ghana are sourced directly
from standing forest, with the remaining coming from residues resulting from logging and sawmill
0.0 2000.0 4000.0 6000.0 8000.0
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
Final Energy Consumption in Ktoe
Year
Final Energy Consumption by Year
Biomass Electricity
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Region
Wood Vs. Non-Wood Fuel in Households by Region
Woodfuel Non-woodfuel
Figure 2. Total Energy Consumption by Type of Energy, 2003–2014 [40,41].
3.1. Woodfuel
The high share attributed to residential activities is mainly because of woodfuel consumption
at the household level [
20
,
42
]. This is because Ghanaian households are dominated by low income
earners who primarily depend on biomass as a primary source of energy. They also employ traditional
and low-technology wood energy systems for cooking and heating [
18
,
27
]. Figure 3indicate that
the nearly 90 percent of the Ghanaian population rely on woodfuels for cooking, with details of
regional breakdown presented [
20
,
22
]. In 2010, Ghana Energy Commission conducted a survey which
revealed that roughly 40 percent of Ghanaian population is wholly dependent on unprocessed firewood
for cooking and heating. An average household uses about 1065 kg of firewood yearly. However,
there exist important disparities between regions and areas, as in the case of total woodfuel. According
to the survey, about 62 percent of rural population used firewood, as compared to about 26 percent
of the urban population. In a similar breadth, while urban households consume an average of about
986 kg of firewood in a year, rural households consume an average of 1113 kg. The survey estimated
about 72 percent of inhabitants in the Savannah regions use firewood as compared to an estimated
57 percent and 52 percent for forest and coastal areas, respectively [22,38].
Energies 2019, 12, 408 5 of 40
Figure 2. Total Energy Consumption by Type of Energy, 2003–2014 [40,41].
3.1.Woodfuel
The high share attributed to residential activities is mainly because of woodfuel consumption at
the household level [20,42]. This is because Ghanaian households are dominated by low income
earners who primarily depend on biomass as a primary source of energy. They also employ
traditional and low-technology wood energy systems for cooking and heating [18,27]. Figure 3
indicate that the nearly 90 percent of the Ghanaian population rely on woodfuels for cooking, with
details of regional breakdown presented [20,22]. In 2010, Ghana Energy Commission conducted a
survey which revealed that roughly 40 percent of Ghanaian population is wholly dependent on
unprocessed firewood for cooking and heating. An average household uses about 1065 kg of
firewood yearly. However, there exist important disparities between regions and areas, as in the case
of total woodfuel. According to the survey, about 62 percent of rural population used firewood, as
compared to about 26 percent of the urban population. In a similar breadth, while urban households
consume an average of about 986 kg of firewood in a year, rural households consume an average of
1113 kg. The survey estimated about 72 percent of inhabitants in the Savannah regions use firewood
as compared to an estimated 57 percent and 52 percent for forest and coastal areas, respectively
[22,38].
Figure 3. Source of Cooking Fuels for Households in All Ten Regions in Ghana [30].
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics [33] noted that the amount of wood fuel
consumed in Ghana nearly doubled from a value of about 20 million m
3
in 2004 to over 35 million m
3
in 2008. In this period, charcoal consumption increased from about 750 thousand m
3
to 1.5 million
m
3
. It is further noted that about 90 percent of all wood fuels consumed in Ghana are sourced directly
from standing forest, with the remaining coming from residues resulting from logging and sawmill
0.0 2000.0 4000.0 6000.0 8000.0
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
Final Energy Consumption in Ktoe
Year
Final Energy Consumption by Year
Biomass Electricity
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Region
Wood Vs. Non-Wood Fuel in Households by Region
Woodfuel Non-woodfuel
Figure 3. Source of Cooking Fuels for Households in All Ten Regions in Ghana [30].
Energies 2019,12, 408 6 of 40
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics [
33
] noted that the amount of wood fuel
consumed in Ghana nearly doubled from a value of about 20 million m
3
in 2004 to over 35 million m
3
in 2008. In this period, charcoal consumption increased from about 750 thousand m
3
to 1.5 million m
3
.
It is further noted that about 90 percent of all wood fuels consumed in Ghana are sourced directly from
standing forest, with the remaining coming from residues resulting from logging and sawmill activities
among others [
22
]. Thus dependency on wood fuel has played a significant role in the fast-paced
deforestation that Ghana has witnessed over past decades. At the turn of the century, Ghana’s forest
cover has since dwindled from over 8 million hectares to 1.6 million hectares today [18,20,27,30,42].
Fallout from Initiatives to Reduce Traditional Biomass Consumption and Wastage
Traditionally, the wood fuel industry in Ghana has been minimally regulated. However,
currently the Energy Commission has begun to introduce a ban on the export of charcoal that is
produced from unapproved sources. Standing forests, in this case, constitute an unapproved source
while on the other hand residues from sawmills as well as forest established for charcoal production
purposes constitute approved sources. Since 2002 the Energy Commission provided permits to
exporters of charcoal that are deemed legitimate according to the government instituted guidelines [
22
].
In recent years, new programs and initiatives have been implemented in order to mitigate
charcoal consumption and its resulting consequences. These include; training of traditional charcoal
producers to adopt efficient charcoal production methods [
22
], partnering with donors to disseminate
and encourage the use of improved biomass energy technologies such as efficient cook stoves
(see Figure 4) [
22
], introduction of the Kerosene Distribution Improvement (KDI) and other liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) programs in rural Ghana to leverage a switch from traditional biomass to
relatively cleaner alternatives through subsidies [
23
,
43
,
44
]. The government has also supported
several programs in urban centers which focuses on charcoal use reduction. Indeed, in the 1990
Ghana National LPG Program rolled out an aggressive campaign targeting LPG as an alternative to
charcoal and firewood. This program focuses on households in urban areas, the informal commercial
sector including small-scale food vendors, and catering facilities in public institutions [
18
,
45
,
46
].
Kemausuor et al. [18]
confirm that these initiatives have been successful. In fact, statistics indicate
that the LPG consumption increased more than tenfold to over 60,000 tones/year in 2004. Currently,
70 percent of all households in Ghana that utilize LPG as their main source of cooking fuel are in the
two regions namely, the Ashanti and Greater Accra Regions [18].
Energies 2019, 12, 408 6 of 40
activities among others [22]. Thus dependency on wood fuel has played a significant role in the fast-
paced deforestation that Ghana has witnessed over past decades. At the turn of the century, Ghana’s
forest cover has since dwindled from over 8 million hectares to 1.6 million hectares today
[18,20,27,30,42].
Fallout from Initiatives to Reduce Traditional Biomass Consumption and Wastage
Traditionally, the wood fuel industry in Ghana has been minimally regulated. However,
currently the Energy Commission has begun to introduce a ban on the export of charcoal that is
produced from unapproved sources. Standing forests, in this case, constitute an unapproved source
while on the other hand residues from sawmills as well as forest established for charcoal production
purposes constitute approved sources. Since 2002 the Energy Commission provided permits to
exporters of charcoal that are deemed legitimate according to the government instituted guidelines
[22].
In recent years, new programs and initiatives have been implemented in order to mitigate
charcoal consumption and its resulting consequences. These include; training of traditional charcoal
producers to adopt efficient charcoal production methods [22], partnering with donors to disseminate
and encourage the use of improved biomass energy technologies such as efficient cook stoves (see
Figure 4) [22], introduction of the Kerosene Distribution Improvement (KDI) and other liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) programs in rural Ghana to leverage a switch from traditional biomass to
relatively cleaner alternatives through subsidies [23,43,44]. The government has also supported
several programs in urban centers which focuses on charcoal use reduction. Indeed, in the 1990
Ghana National LPG Program rolled out an aggressive campaign targeting LPG as an alternative to
charcoal and firewood. This program focuses on households in urban areas, the informal commercial
sector including small-scale food vendors, and catering facilities in public institutions [18,45,46].
Kemausuor et al. [18] confirm that these initiatives have been successful. In fact, statistics indicate
that the LPG consumption increased more than tenfold to over 60,000 tones/year in 2004. Currently,
70 percent of all households in Ghana that utilize LPG as their main source of cooking fuel are in the
two regions namely, the Ashanti and Greater Accra Regions [18].
Figure 4. Traditional Coal Pot (Left) and Gyapa Improved Cook Stove (Right) Common the Ghanaian
Market.
An attempt by the government to replicate the urban success in the rural areas is laudable.
However, the current initiatives have been fraught with remarkable challenges. One of the challenges
as explained by Kankam and Boon [23] is that richer households are more likely to use LPG, however,
the odds increases against better targeting of the rural poor who are the intended beneficiaries.
3.2. Electricity
Ghana generates most of its electricity from two large hydropower stations: the Akosombo and
the Kpong dams. Together, they provide about 65 percent of the total 2200 MW of electricity supplied
in the country [9,47]. Thermal power plants that operate on fossil fuels supply the remaining 35
percent (Figure 5).
Figure 4.
Traditional Coal Pot (
Left
) and Gyapa Improved Cook Stove (
Right
) Common the
Ghanaian Market.
An attempt by the government to replicate the urban success in the rural areas is laudable.
However, the current initiatives have been fraught with remarkable challenges. One of the challenges
as explained by Kankam and Boon [
23
] is that richer households are more likely to use LPG, however,
the odds increases against better targeting of the rural poor who are the intended beneficiaries.
Energies 2019,12, 408 7 of 40
3.2. Electricity
Ghana generates most of its electricity from two large hydropower stations: the Akosombo and
the Kpong dams. Together, they provide about 65 percent of the total 2200 MW of electricity supplied
in the country [
9
,
47
]. Thermal power plants that operate on fossil fuels supply the remaining 35 percent
(Figure 5).
Energies 2019, 12, 408 7 of 40
Figure 5. Percentage Contribution to Ghana’s Total Energy Mix in 2010 (total = 10,232.11 TWh) [48].
The proportion of total electricity supply from thermal power plants has risen significantly over
the past few years since Ghana’s hydroelectric power dams were saddled with myriad of challenges
[9]. Figure 6 shows that electricity supplied from thermal power plants increased from less than 10
percent in 2000 to about 30 percent in 2010.
Figure 6. Electricity Generation by Source in Ghana (in GWh) [22].
The challenges that confront the hydroelectric sector stem from two main sources. First, the
country’s population growth and relatively high urbanization rate have increased the electricity
demand, thereby putting pressure on the old power generation and supply systems. As Figure 7
shows, electricity consumed by residential class has increased in relation to industrial uses. In fact,
between 2000 and 2010, electricity supplied to the residential sector increased from about 24 percent
to nearly 40 percent. In the same period electricity supplied to the industrial sector decreased by over
20 percent in share, almost 70 percent to about 47 percent [22,40,49]. Secondly, Ghana has sustained
hydrological shocks in recent years due to bouts of drought and unreliable rainfall patterns,
increasingly making the hydroelectric power facilities unreliable because of their inability to achieve
full generation status [9].
1%
31%
68%
Contribution to electricity generation
Imports
Thermal
0
5000
10000
15000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Generated Electricity (GWh)
Year
Electricity Generation in Ghana
Thermal Hydropower Total
Figure 5. Percentage Contribution to Ghana’s Total Energy Mix in 2010 (total = 10,232.11 TWh) [48].
The proportion of total electricity supply from thermal power plants has risen significantly over
the past few years since Ghana’s hydroelectric power dams were saddled with myriad of challenges [
9
].
Figure 6shows that electricity supplied from thermal power plants increased from less than 10 percent
in 2000 to about 30 percent in 2010.
Energies 2019, 12, 408 7 of 40
Figure 5. Percentage Contribution to Ghana’s Total Energy Mix in 2010 (total = 10,232.11 TWh) [48].
The proportion of total electricity supply from thermal power plants has risen significantly over
the past few years since Ghana’s hydroelectric power dams were saddled with myriad of challenges
[9]. Figure 6 shows that electricity supplied from thermal power plants increased from less than 10
percent in 2000 to about 30 percent in 2010.
Figure 6. Electricity Generation by Source in Ghana (in GWh) [22].
The challenges that confront the hydroelectric sector stem from two main sources. First, the
country’s population growth and relatively high urbanization rate have increased the electricity
demand, thereby putting pressure on the old power generation and supply systems. As Figure 7
shows, electricity consumed by residential class has increased in relation to industrial uses. In fact,
between 2000 and 2010, electricity supplied to the residential sector increased from about 24 percent
to nearly 40 percent. In the same period electricity supplied to the industrial sector decreased by over
20 percent in share, almost 70 percent to about 47 percent [22,40,49]. Secondly, Ghana has sustained
hydrological shocks in recent years due to bouts of drought and unreliable rainfall patterns,
increasingly making the hydroelectric power facilities unreliable because of their inability to achieve
full generation status [9].
1%
31%
68%
Contribution to electricity generation
Imports
Thermal
0
5000
10000
15000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Generated Electricity (GWh)
Year
Electricity Generation in Ghana
Thermal Hydropower Total
Figure 6. Electricity Generation by Source in Ghana (in GWh) [22].
The challenges that confront the hydroelectric sector stem from two main sources. First,
the country’s population growth and relatively high urbanization rate have increased the electricity
demand, thereby putting pressure on the old power generation and supply systems. As Figure 7shows,
electricity consumed by residential class has increased in relation to industrial uses. In fact, between
2000 and 2010, electricity supplied to the residential sector increased from about 24 percent to nearly
40 percent. In the same period electricity supplied to the industrial sector decreased by over 20 percent
in share, almost 70 percent to about 47 percent [
22
,
40
,
49
]. Secondly, Ghana has sustained hydrological
shocks in recent years due to bouts of drought and unreliable rainfall patterns, increasingly making the
hydroelectric power facilities unreliable because of their inability to achieve full generation status [
9
].
Energies 2019,12, 408 8 of 40
Energies 2019, 12, 408 8 of 40
Figure 7. Percent of Share of Grid Electricity Consumed by Different Consumer Classes [40].
Ghana officially commissioned its first hydroelectric dam, the Akosombo Dam, in 1965. In 1961,
the government of Ghana passed the Volta River Development Act, which established the Volta River
Authority (VRA) as part of the Volta River Project. The mandate of this authority was to ensure
generation and transmission of power. It was in the same year that construction of this dam officially
began. In this project, the VRA installed four hydroelectric generating units. Together, they had a
total capacity of 588 megawatts (MW), including an overload capacity of 15 percent [18,50]. In 1972,
the VRA commissioned two additional generating units with a capacity of 324 MW, also with a 15
percent overload capacity. The Kpong hydroelectric plant, the second in Ghana, came on board in
1981 with an installed capacity of 160 MW to supplement the Akosombo Dam due to increased
demand of gridded electricity by a growing population [18]. By 1990, the government drew a 30-year
electrification plan to increase access to all parts of the country under the National Electrification
Scheme (NES). The scheme mainly targeted the northern parts of the country, which had no grid
power. To further increase total electricity generation in the country to support the project, the VRA
brought on board the newly rehabilitated Tema Diesel Generating Station. The recommissioned
station raised the capacity of the national electrical power to 1,102 MW, with an additional 20 MW
[18].
Ghana has since then achieved steady increments in electricity production and supply, with
demand also growing at an estimated 6–7 percent per annum. The government invested heavily in
thermal plants due to the unreliability of hydroelectric electricity, which caused significant energy
crisis in the country between 2002 and 2004, as well as in the year 2007. As Figures 7 and 8 depict, it
is noticeable that total electricity supply and the per capita consumption took a great hit owing to
protracted hydrological shocks [5,18,40]. In fact, in 2007, the slump in electricity supply meant that
electricity accounted for only about 9 percent of total 9.50 Mtoe of final energy consumed [9,27].
Figure 8. Pattern of Electricity Consumption per Capita in Ghana over Time from 2001–2014 [40].
0.0%
20.0%
40.0%
60.0%
80.0%
20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013
Generated Electricity (GWh)
Year
Electricity Consumption
Industry Non-Residential Residential
200
250
300
350
400
450
ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION
(KWH)
YEAR
Per Capita Electricity Consumption
Figure 7. Percent of Share of Grid Electricity Consumed by Different Consumer Classes [40].
Ghana officially commissioned its first hydroelectric dam, the Akosombo Dam, in 1965. In 1961,
the government of Ghana passed the Volta River Development Act, which established the Volta River
Authority (VRA) as part of the Volta River Project. The mandate of this authority was to ensure
generation and transmission of power. It was in the same year that construction of this dam officially
began. In this project, the VRA installed four hydroelectric generating units. Together, they had a total
capacity of 588 megawatts (MW), including an overload capacity of 15 percent [
18
,
50
]. In 1972, the VRA
commissioned two additional generating units with a capacity of 324 MW, also with a 15 percent
overload capacity. The Kpong hydroelectric plant, the second in Ghana, came on board in 1981 with an
installed capacity of 160 MW to supplement the Akosombo Dam due to increased demand of gridded
electricity by a growing population [
18
]. By 1990, the government drew a 30-year electrification plan to
increase access to all parts of the country under the National Electrification Scheme (NES). The scheme
mainly targeted the northern parts of the country, which had no grid power. To further increase total
electricity generation in the country to support the project, the VRA brought on board the newly
rehabilitated Tema Diesel Generating Station. The recommissioned station raised the capacity of the
national electrical power to 1,102 MW, with an additional 20 MW [18].
Ghana has since then achieved steady increments in electricity production and supply,
with demand also growing at an estimated 6–7 percent per annum. The government invested heavily
in thermal plants due to the unreliability of hydroelectric electricity, which caused significant energy
crisis in the country between 2002 and 2004, as well as in the year 2007. As Figures 7and 8depict,
it is noticeable that total electricity supply and the per capita consumption took a great hit owing to
protracted hydrological shocks [
5
,
18
,
40
]. In fact, in 2007, the slump in electricity supply meant that
electricity accounted for only about 9 percent of total 9.50 Mtoe of final energy consumed [9,27].
Energies 2019, 12, 408 8 of 40
Figure 7. Percent of Share of Grid Electricity Consumed by Different Consumer Classes [40].
Ghana officially commissioned its first hydroelectric dam, the Akosombo Dam, in 1965. In 1961,
the government of Ghana passed the Volta River Development Act, which established the Volta River
Authority (VRA) as part of the Volta River Project. The mandate of this authority was to ensure
generation and transmission of power. It was in the same year that construction of this dam officially
began. In this project, the VRA installed four hydroelectric generating units. Together, they had a
total capacity of 588 megawatts (MW), including an overload capacity of 15 percent [18,50]. In 1972,
the VRA commissioned two additional generating units with a capacity of 324 MW, also with a 15
percent overload capacity. The Kpong hydroelectric plant, the second in Ghana, came on board in
1981 with an installed capacity of 160 MW to supplement the Akosombo Dam due to increased
demand of gridded electricity by a growing population [18]. By 1990, the government drew a 30-year
electrification plan to increase access to all parts of the country under the National Electrification
Scheme (NES). The scheme mainly targeted the northern parts of the country, which had no grid
power. To further increase total electricity generation in the country to support the project, the VRA
brought on board the newly rehabilitated Tema Diesel Generating Station. The recommissioned
station raised the capacity of the national electrical power to 1,102 MW, with an additional 20 MW
[18].
Ghana has since then achieved steady increments in electricity production and supply, with
demand also growing at an estimated 6–7 percent per annum. The government invested heavily in
thermal plants due to the unreliability of hydroelectric electricity, which caused significant energy
crisis in the country between 2002 and 2004, as well as in the year 2007. As Figures 7 and 8 depict, it
is noticeable that total electricity supply and the per capita consumption took a great hit owing to
protracted hydrological shocks [5,18,40]. In fact, in 2007, the slump in electricity supply meant that
electricity accounted for only about 9 percent of total 9.50 Mtoe of final energy consumed [9,27].
Figure 8. Pattern of Electricity Consumption per Capita in Ghana over Time from 2001–2014 [40].
0.0%
20.0%
40.0%
60.0%
80.0%
20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013
Generated Electricity (GWh)
Year
Electricity Consumption
Industry Non-Residential Residential
200
250
300
350
400
450
ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION
(KWH)
YEAR
Per Capita Electricity Consumption
Figure 8. Pattern of Electricity Consumption per Capita in Ghana over Time from 2001–2014 [40].
Energies 2019,12, 408 9 of 40
By 2008, however, the significant investments undertaken in the thermal power plants increased
their combined installed power generation capacity to about 831 MW. In this year, Ghana ranked as
the third highest in sub-Saharan Africa only after Mauritius and South Africa, for having achieved
55 percent access rate nationwide. This achievement was remarkable since the country only had
28 percent access in 1988 [
18
]. Ghana’s current national electricity access is about 70 percent. Within
this overall high access, however, lie significant disparities between urban and rural populations.
While about 78 percent of the urban population has access to electricity, only an estimated 30 percent
of rural populations has access [
9
]. Figure 9represents the increase in the number of communities that
were connected to the national grid by 2010, within the four phases of Ghana’s electrification targets
over a 20-year period.
Energies 2019, 12, 408 9 of 40
By 2008, however, the significant investments undertaken in the thermal power plants increased
their combined installed power generation capacity to about 831 MW. In this year, Ghana ranked as
the third highest in sub-Saharan Africa only after Mauritius and South Africa, for having achieved 55
percent access rate nationwide. This achievement was remarkable since the country only had 28
percent access in 1988 [18]. Ghana’s current national electricity access is about 70 percent. Within this
overall high access, however, lie significant disparities between urban and rural populations. While
about 78 percent of the urban population has access to electricity, only an estimated 30 percent of
rural populations has access [9]. Figure 9 represents the increase in the number of communities that
were connected to the national grid by 2010, within the four phases of Ghana’s electrification targets
over a 20-year period.
Figure 9. Number of Communities with Connection to Electricity Grid [51].
Among the important initiatives to increase electricity generation capacity in Ghana was its
involvement in the West African Gas Pipeline (WAGP) project. In this project, Nigeria, Africa’s
leading producer of crude oil, was to supply natural gas to power thermal plants in Ghana, along
with Togo and Benin. This was to reduce the reliance on expensive, imported crude oil for power
plants that are located along Ghana’s coast, including the Asogli and Aboadze thermal plants, which
have 200 MW and 330 MW, respectively [5,27,38,52]. The WAGP started delivery of free-flowing gas
to the plants after 2010 after many years of delay due to operational obstacles such as detected leaks
in pipelines, missing its intended starting date in 2007 [5]. Finding oil and gas in Ghana has boosted
the viability of thermal power plants, as an alternative fuel source [18].
In 2013, Ghana commissioned its third dam, the Bui Dam, in the Brong Ahafo region that was
constructed on the Black Volta River. The Bui Dam project commenced in Ghana in 2007, and the
Ghanaian government received support from the Chinese government on several fronts to bring this
project into fruition. The new dam has also brought about a generation capacity of about 400 MW
into the existing pool of electricity generation in Ghana [5]. Table 2 above summarizes electricity
generation assets in Ghana, with fuel type they run on, and their installed capacity. As Gyamfi et al.
[9] noted on his study, almost 90 percent of all electricity generation assets in Ghana belong to the
state owned VRA, while independent power producers make up the remaining portion. It is quite
evident that Ghana has aggressively pursued different initiatives and projects to expand electricity
access for its population. This pursuit has been in attempt to fulfil its goal of ensuring universal access
to electricity by the year 2020. Being able to widen access to a level of this magnitude has engendered
some of the significant power sector reforms in Ghana over the past decades that has led to a massive
restructure of institutions that run the electricity sector [23,53].
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Phase 1 & 2 (1990-2000)
Phase 3 (2001-2005)
Phase 4 (2005-2010)
Total
Number of Communities
Phase
Communities Connected to the Grid
Figure 9. Number of Communities with Connection to Electricity Grid [51].
Among the important initiatives to increase electricity generation capacity in Ghana was its
involvement in the West African Gas Pipeline (WAGP) project. In this project, Nigeria, Africa’s leading
producer of crude oil, was to supply natural gas to power thermal plants in Ghana, along with Togo
and Benin. This was to reduce the reliance on expensive, imported crude oil for power plants that are
located along Ghana’s coast, including the Asogli and Aboadze thermal plants, which have 200 MW
and 330 MW, respectively [
5
,
27
,
38
,
52
]. The WAGP started delivery of free-flowing gas to the plants
after 2010 after many years of delay due to operational obstacles such as detected leaks in pipelines,
missing its intended starting date in 2007 [
5
]. Finding oil and gas in Ghana has boosted the viability of
thermal power plants, as an alternative fuel source [18].
In 2013, Ghana commissioned its third dam, the Bui Dam, in the Brong Ahafo region that was
constructed on the Black Volta River. The Bui Dam project commenced in Ghana in 2007, and the
Ghanaian government received support from the Chinese government on several fronts to bring this
project into fruition. The new dam has also brought about a generation capacity of about 400 MW into
the existing pool of electricity generation in Ghana [
5
]. Table 2above summarizes electricity generation
assets in Ghana, with fuel type they run on, and their installed capacity. As Gyamfi et al. [
9
] noted
on his study, almost 90 percent of all electricity generation assets in Ghana belong to the state owned
VRA, while independent power producers make up the remaining portion. It is quite evident that
Ghana has aggressively pursued different initiatives and projects to expand electricity access for its
population. This pursuit has been in attempt to fulfil its goal of ensuring universal access to electricity
by the year 2020. Being able to widen access to a level of this magnitude has engendered some of the
significant power sector reforms in Ghana over the past decades that has led to a massive restructure
of institutions that run the electricity sector [23,53].
Energies 2019,12, 408 10 of 40
Table 2. Electricity Generation Capacity by Plant in Ghana [40].
Plant Type of Fuel Installed Capacity (mw)
hydro generation
Akosombo Water 1020
Kpong Water 160
Bui Water 400
Sub-total 1580
Thermal generation
Takoradi Power Company (TAPCO) LCO/natural gas 330
Takoradi International Company (TICO) LCO/natural gas 220
Sunonasogli Power (Ghana) Limited (SAPP)—IPP Natural gas 200
Cenit Energy Limited (CEL)—IPP LCO 126
Tema Thermal 1 Power Plant (TT1PP) LCO/natural gas 110
Tema Thermal 2 Power Plant (TT2PP) Diesel/natural gas 50
Takoradi T3 LCO/natural gas 132
Mines Reserve Plant (MRP) Diesel/natural gas 80
Sub-total 1248
Total 2828
* LCO—Light Crude oil.
Distribution, Oversight, and Regulation of Ghana’s Electricity
Currently, government agencies dominate Ghana’s electricity production and supply sectors.
Ghana has a system operator, the Ghana Grid Company (GRIDCO), which operates and manages
the national grid and power system, respectively. Two main companies make up the distribution
sector of the electricity produced in Ghana. The Electricity Company of Ghana (ECG) is responsible
for distribution of electricity in the southern sector of the country (Ashanti, Greater Accra, Eastern,
Western and Volta regions) except for entities such as Volta Aluminum Company (VALCO), mines,
and the Akosombo Township. Meanwhile, the Northern Electricity Distribution Company (NEDCo)
handles distribution in the northern sector, comprising of Brong Ahafo, Northern, Upper East and
Upper West Regions [9,22,23].
Ghana has given significant attention to policy and regulation in its electricity production and
supply sectors in the past two decades through large-scale reforms. In 1997, Ghana enacted both the
Public Utilities Regulatory Commission (PURC) Act (Act 538) and the Energy Commission (EC) Act
(Act 541) [
23
,
47
]. Through the PURC, a public Transmission Utility Company (TUC), which manages
the national electricity grid, was established [
23
,
43
]. The PURC, therefore, became the independent
body responsible for the regulation and oversight of the provision of the highest quality of utility
services, including electricity and water, to consumers [
47
]. Through its establishment, the EC
also ensured an absolute decoupling of the generation and transmission sectors within Ghana’s
electricity [23,43].
The government, in consultation with the various key stakeholders, including generators,
distributors and representatives of major consumers, tasked the PURC with setting electricity tariffs. In
line with its mandate, the PURC put in place a transition plan to initiate a gradual adjustment towards
economic cost recovery by 2003 [
22
]. According to EC [
22
], the automatic price adjustment formula of
the Transition Plan was affected only in 2003 and 2004. In 2003, the formula was affected once, while it
was affected twice in 2004. In 2004, the adjustment only affected the bulk supply tariff (BST) and the
distribution service charge (DSC). The BST and DSC, combined, is the end user tariff (EUT) that the
distribution companies charge. Tariffs set for industrial and commercial customers differ from that of
residential customers. Currently, unsubsidized residential customers pay about an average of 10 US
cents per every kWh consumed. For residential customers, there is a lifeline tariff (subsidized tariff
aimed at providing support for low-income households) for low consumption. The lifeline tariff was
set at 50 kWh, a significant downgrade from the maximum 100 kWh in 1990. Lifeline consumers in
Ghana use electricity free of charge, with the government subsidizing their consumption [22].
Energies 2019,12, 408 11 of 40
While there have been efforts towards full cost recovery in Ghana’s power sector, it has still
proven difficult to achieve over the years because the tariffs are fundamentally set based on the costs
of base-load hydropower. This means that the VRA usually runs at a loss because it is increasingly
generating a significant amount of electricity from thermal plants that run on expensive oil [
9
,
54
].
This has significantly affected the speed of expansion of Ghana’s electricity sector. According to
Miller et al. [
47
], the government has recognized that the issues of comparatively low tariffs and
delays in establishing a sustainable tariff regime has contributed to the reticence of many potential
power sector investors in investing in the sector. To tackle this reticence, the government in recent
years has attempted to increase competition in the power sector by introducing Independent Power
Production (IPP) schemes and reforms, such as increasing low electricity tariffs towards internationally
accepted levels [
47
]. This is with the hope that independent power producers can contribute to filling
the electricity deficit of about 200 MW per year needed for Ghana to meet its growing electricity
demands [9,48].
4. The Status Quo and Potential of Renewable Energy in Ghana
Dependable energy supply is the backbone of any modern and thriving economy. Ghana is
no different and takes many steps to bolster its energy supply. Ghana’s achievements in the energy
sector over the past few decades have been remarkable. However, as the above discussions indicate,
significant challenges persist. Enduring power outages in Ghana has gradually been woven into the
psyche of consumers of electricity and significant number of rural communities still have no access to
electricity. Providing energy that is less expensive, reliable, and environmentally friendly still remains
a challenge.
A well-developed and diversified energy sector is one of the principal attracting forces for foreign
direct investments (FDI) [
55
]. Like many countries in Africa, the resource pool available for Ghana
to pursue renewable energy development is seemingly unlimited [
18
]. Even before the transition of
the globe from the MDGs to the SDGs in 2015, Ghana had already adopted the Strategic National
Energy Plan (SNEP) for the period of 2006–2020. With this plan, the government formally passed the
Renewable Energy Act with a target of achieving a 10 percent share of these renewables in electricity
production by the year 2020 [
9
,
47
,
56
]. The plan also set to achieve 15 percent penetration of rural
electrification through decentralized renewable energy by 2015, and expanding to 30 percent by
2020 [47].
After over 10 years of adopting the SNEP, and signatory to the SDGs, this section provides
a comprehensive assessment of the different forms of renewable energy resources—bioenergy,
solar energy, wind energy, and small to medium hydropower—in Ghana in terms of their status
quo, breakthroughs, prospects and challenges. This is in order to assess Ghana’s potential to achieve
the overarching goal of providing sustainable energy for all by 2030 as per the SDG number seven.
4.1. Bioenergy
4.1.1. Overview of Bioenergy
Biomass is a term used for all plants, algae, microorganisms and animals. Biomass resources
encapsulates a broad range of products including wastes from agricultural activities and timber
residues, as well as wastes from animals and food processing, and municipal solid wastes [
27
,
57
].
There are numerous economic and environmental benefits derived from biomass resources. Therefore,
there are many competing uses of these resources at any given time. Within biomass resources are
significant deposits of free energy in the form of chemical bonds that bind compounds such as carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, of which they consist [
58
,
59
]. When the molecules are broken, the free
energy released can generate heat that can also be converted to electricity. When converted to liquid
form, biomass can also be used for transportation fuel [
59
,
60
]. Apart from liquid, fuels produced from
biomass can also be solid or gas [57].
Energies 2019,12, 408 12 of 40
As we previously noted, Ghana depends on solid biomass, in the form of fuelwood and charcoal,
for about 70 percent of its primary energy supply [
20
]. Liquid fuels produced biomass, popularly
referred to as biofuels, have been more attractive in recent decades due to the high energy densities
they possess, coupled with the fact that they can be stored in light-weight tanks [
61
]. They have
particularly risen to prominence around the globe as with the potential to provide solutions to issues
such as climate change and dwindling fossil fuel deposits. This is because they are seen as a clean
alternative source to fossil fuels, which can be deployed in transportation with minimal alteration to
existing pumping infrastructure [
2
,
57
,
62
]. While biofuel development has been widespread in recent
years, the idea of using biofuels for transportation purposes is not entirely new, as Rudolf Diesel fueled
a 1900 engine with peanut oil [
60
,
63
]. The suitability of different forms of biomass for fuel is primarily
dependent on factors such as their moisture content, calorific value, fixed carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and cellulose/lignin ratio among others [27].
There are four different classifications of biofuels depending on the feedstock utilized for their
production, and stages of development, namely; first generation, second generation, third generation,
and fourth generation biofuels [
2
]. First generation biofuels are made from feedstock such as sugarcane,
cassava, and sugar beet cereals, by using their sugar and starch portions. Oil seed crops such as
rapeseed, sunflower, soybean and palm oil are also used to produce first generation biofuels [
64
].
Second generation consists of biofuels that are produced from agricultural and forest residues. They are
also produced from feedstock such as trees, jatropha, straw, bagasse, and purpose energy crops, which
are said to thrive on marginal lands [
15
,
65
]. First and second generation biofuels are the most
advanced [
2
]. Third and fourth generation biofuels are, however, relatively newer forms of biofuel that
are produced based on improvements and biotechnological engineering of biomass such as algae ad
other feedstock [
14
,
65
–
68
]. Ethanol and biodiesel are two most common biofuel products used around
the world. While ethanol is commonly derived from sugar and starchy feedstock such as sugarcane,
sweet sorghum, maize and cassava, biodiesel is commonly produced from oil seeds such as oil palm,
coconut, sunflower, soybean and jatropha [27].
4.1.2. Potential and Policies of Bioenergy in Ghana
Ghana has significant biofuel potential for numerous reasons. First, as previously explained,
agriculture dominates Ghana’s economy, and produces a vast range of crops including maize, cassava,
sugarcane, cocoa, and oil palm that are useful for biofuel production [
20
,
27
]. Table 3summarizes
the main agricultural produce in Ghana as of 2008 and the total amount of land area each of them
covers [69].
Table 3. Major Crops Produced in Ghana as of 2008 [69].
Product Production Quantity (1000 tons) Crop Yield (hg/ha) Area Harvested (ha)
Sorghum 350 10,294 340,000
Maize 1100 104,615 750,000
Sugarcane 145 2,544,385 5700
Rice 242 20,166 120,000
Cocoa beans 700 4000 1,750,000
Coffee 1.6 1650 10,000
Cassava 9650 120,625 800,000
Seed cotton 2 8000 25,000
Coconuts 316 56,936 55,500
Oil palm fruits 1900 6333 300,000
Groundnuts 4289 9317 460,000
Second, according to Gyamfi et al. [
9
], Ghana possesses vast arable and degraded land areas that
have the potential to be used for growing energy crops that are resistant and can thrive on marginal
and abandoned lands. Third, Ghana already depends on biomass for significant portion of its energy
Energies 2019,12, 408 13 of 40
needs [
5
]. Finally, Ghana produces a significant amount of waste in the form of municipal solid waste,
food waste, and sewage sludge or bio-solids, which can be used in the production of biofuels.
4.1.3. Explaining the “Boom and Bust” of Jatropha
Recognizing its deep potential for biofuel development, the EC of Ghana, in 2005, set up the
Biofuel Committee to prepare a National Biofuel Policy (NBP). The National Parliament received this
policy and passed it into legislation. The NBP’s primary goal was to accelerate the development of
biofuel industry in Ghana, with a special emphasis on jatropha [
27
,
70
–
72
]. The Biofuel Committee
zeroed in on jatropha specifically because a Ghanaian biochemist, Onua Amoah, who was also the Chief
Executive Officer of biodiesel processing company named Anuanom Industries Ltd., had successfully
produced biodiesel from jatropha in the early 2000s [
70
]. The government also had a unique interest in
making jatropha the target plant because it was already known to be useful for multiple purposes on the
local scale including making soap from its oil and using the seeds for fertilizer [
27
,
73
]. The knowledge
that a plant could make use of Ghana’s vast degraded and marginal lands made the case of cultivating
jatropha for biodiesel even more convincing to Ghanaians [
27
,
70
,
74
]. Besides, it would be a viable
investment for communities as a jatropha plantation has a relatively short period of establishment that
ranges from two to five years and an up to 50 years of longevity [
75
]. Compared to other feedstocks as
depicted in Table 4, jatropha is noted as the best option for biofuel in terms of production cost [5].
Table 4. Production Cost of Biofuels by Type of Feedstock [5].
Biofuel Feedstock Estimated Cost of Production (US$ per barrel)
Cellulose 305
Wheat 125
Rapeseed 125
Soybean 122
Sugar beets 100
Corn 83
Sugarcane 45
Jatropha 43
In the period of 2006–2007, there were hikes in global oil prices, and that gave further momentum
to strategizing for fossil fuel substitution with biodiesel from cultivated jatropha and other energy
crops, without threatening food security and livelihoods in Ghana [
70
,
71
,
74
]. The NBP outlined several
recommendations in its steps towards reducing dependence on fossil fuels. One of them was to
substitute 20 and 30 percent of national gasoil and kerosene consumption, respectively, with jatropha
oil [
72
]. The plan also recommended that the country pursues replacing at least 5 percent of petroleum
diesel with biodiesel by the year 2010, and 20 percent by 2015 [
72
,
73
]. Besides these, the NBP
recommended that institutional barriers be removed in order to promote private sector engagement in
the production of biofuel, and the management of the industry [72].
The then New Patriotic Party (NPP) government showed optimism and established the National
Jatropha Project Planning Committee in 2006 to plan for jatropha biofuels development [
70
].
The government was to approach the jatropha cultivation with a similar model to Ghana’s cocoa
industry—an out-grower system—where a marketing board set up by the government would buy
jatropha nuts from farmers to be processed by Anuanom Industries Ltd. Soon after the training
programs, the government allotted some lands classified as “marginal” or “degraded” in 53 districts
around the country for jatropha cultivation by farmers with interest. The areas cut across the savanna
and forest or transitional ecological zones of Ghana [
70
]. As Boamah [
70
] noted, the government’s
rationale for selecting areas within these 53 districts is that cultivating on them will have little to
no consequence for food crop production, as they are outside the major food production zones in
the country.
Energies 2019,12, 408 14 of 40
The biofuel development was taking off according to plan. However, it was not long after
the training and sensitization workshops that the pioneer of the jatropha initiative, Onua Amoah,
died. The death of the main brain behind the government’s interest in jatropha biodiesel, coupled
with the discovery of oil within the borders of Ghana reduced government’s interest in the project.
The government later withdrew from the national biofuel project. However, it pledged that it would
continue to support private investors who were interested [
70
]. Without the government in play,
it meant that growers of jatropha had to find another market to purchase their produce. It is also
important to note that the jatropha frenzy was not unique to Ghana, and therefore there were foreign
interests that were ready to fill the vacuum. At this point, there was a high influx of foreign biofuel
investors in the country, including companies from Canada, Italy, Norway, and Japan.
As foreign companies trooped in, their focus was fundamentally different from the main purpose
for which jatropha development had been pursued in Ghana. While according to the framework
developed by the biofuel committee, a government board was going to buy the jatropha seeds from
the farmers for processing in Ghana, the foreign companies primarily wanted to grow jatropha as a
raw material for export. The only local content in their pursuit was the lands needed for cultivation,
and the labor needed for that. With the government having pulled out, there was little political will to
regulate the nascent biofuel industry by the NPP government [
70
]. Even with the global alarm over
food for fuel that had triggered the 2008 food crisis, the new government of the National Democratic
Congress (NDC) that took over power in 2009, while expressing concern, continued with the policies
of the previous government by encouraging foreign investments. Effectively, an industry that was
being nurtured for subsistence, and community farm scales had transitioned into another cash crop
industry, with no significant means of local processing [27,70].
By 2009, the government approved about 400,000 hectares of land for ScanFuel Company
Limited, an affiliate of the Norwegian company ScanFuel AS, to begin one of the first large scale
jatropha plantations in Ghana [
27
,
70
,
76
]. By August of the same year, there was a collective area of
about 1,075,000 hectares of land dedicated to energy crop production around Ghana. Of this total,
an estimated 730,000 hectares were located in the Brong Ahafo Region and the northern Ashanti Region,
all in the forest-savanna transition zone [
3
,
5
,
27
,
76
]. According to Schoneveld et al. [
76
], about seventeen
companies acquired the vast land area, of which fifteen were reported to be owned by foreign entities
or financed by the Ghanaian Diaspora. As Schoneveld [
76
] further explained that all but one of the
said companies operated on a business model that required large-scale feedstock plantations of more
than 1000 hectares.
Besides the ScanFuel project that was located in the Agogo Traditional Council in Southern Ghana,
several other projects gained prominence. The BioFuel Africa project was also another that involved a
Norway based company, BioFuel Africa Ltd. The BioFuel Africa project covered an approximately
23,000 ha of land, and was located in the Northern Ghana, spanning several towns and villages
including Kpachaa, Kparchee, Tua, Jachee, Sagbargu, and Chegu predominantly within the Yendi and
Gonja Districts [
70
,
77
]. The project also acquired an 850 ha test farm in the Volta Region of Ghana.
Another notable project was the Kimminic project that involved a 65,000 ha joint venture land deal with
six traditional councils in the Brong Ahafo Region dedicated to cultivation of jatropha. The Kimminic
project was funded by Canadian investors [
70
,
76
]. The European Union (EU) also funded a 500 ha
jatropha project in the Northern Region as an “aid” project that was primarily for income-generation
purposes for vulnerable groups, especially women [
70
]. According to Boamah [
70
], the EU project was
coordinated by the University of Sassari from Italy, and collaborated with local research institutions
such as Technology Consultancy Centre of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
the Savannah Agricultural Research Institute, and the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA). With
all these projects flooding in, Ghana inevitably became known as the “Jatropha Center in Africa” [
76
].
Ghana, together with fellow sub-Sahara African countries Sudan, Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Mozambique,
accounted for nearly a quarter of land acquired around the world for biofuel plantations [78,79].
Energies 2019,12, 408 15 of 40
The large-scale land acquisition that took place was unprecedented in the country. The “land
grabbing” that occurred brought significant amount of conflicts, and raised concerns within
communities and among civil society. This is especially because these large scale land deals in
most cases had the direct involvement of chiefs, contrary to previous decades where such large scale
acquisitions for agricultural activities and mining concessions were solely negotiated on the state
level [
3
,
76
,
77
]. As Boamah [
80
] indicated, Ghana has a predominantly customary land tenure regime,
where customary landowners such as families, clans, and stools hold over 80 percent of land. For this
reason, the complicity of a head of any of these institutions could lead to loss of lands for large groups
of people who may not have any legal recourse.
Many scholars have documented the consequences of large scale land acquisitions on local
livelihoods and the numerous conflicts that ensued, as well as the roles of different actors [
3
,
70
,
76
].
For instance, Campion and Acheampong [
77
], using of interviews, questionnaires, and focus group
discussions, investigated and catalogued the roles of chiefs in the acquisition of land, and the causes and
solutions of conflicts that ensued in jatropha plantations. According to Campion and Acheampong [
77
],
the chief who presided over the transaction of the Biofuel Africa project did not inform the community
members of the transaction. Many farmers lost their farms in the process, giving rise to widespread
agitation. In another project by Galten Agro Ltd., Campion and Acheampong [
77
] indicated that the
chiefs of Fievie Traditional Area carried out the transaction when they were not the rightful owners.
While the chief of New Bakpa, the rightful owner, succeeded in compelling the company to re-sign
a new lease with him, members of the community did not play any role regarding the new lease.
Compensation for affected farmers in this case was also absent from the renegotiation efforts. In the
Kimminic project, which was located in two different communities, Campion and Acheampong [
77
]
explained that the Nkoranza Paramount Chief gave a vast land area to the investors, without seeking
the consent of local farmers who received no compensation for their lands. The ScanFuel project in
Agogo had a similar story as negotiations took place between the paramount chief and the company,
without the people’s involvement. Campion and Acheampong [
77
] concluded in his study that while
the conflicts were somewhat diverse in terms magnitude, the common thread that linked all of them
was the land dispossession from the local people, which threatened their livelihoods.
Regarding the extent to which land dispossession impacted the livelihoods of the local people,
studies such as Acheampong and Campion [
3
], Schoneveld et al. [
76
] and Boamah [
80
] have shown that
the consequences on the local scale can be devastating, leading to resistance and conflicts. The resistance
of local communities to projects that had adverse impacts on their livelihoods, and the support they
gained from civil society dealt a significant blow to the jatropha industry. As Boamah [
70
] indicated,
for example, a non-governmental organization (NGO) called the Regional Advisory and Information
Network Systems (RAINS) was very vocal in its opposition to the BioFuel Africa project as it criticized
the impacts of the project land tenure and food insecurity. ActionAid Ghana eventually joined the
chorus of criticisms corroborating the assertions that the project was destroying livelihoods. With the
growing scrutiny that the nascent industry was being subjected to, some of the projects were downsized
or switched their purpose. For instance, the BioFuel Africa eventually registered only about 11,000 ha
of land for the project instead of the original 23,000 ha that they earmarked for the project [
70
]. ScanFuel
also switched the project from jatropha plantation to maize plantation in 2010, and formally changed
the name of the project to ScanFarm [70,76].
While some critics have pointed to Ghana’s ambition interfering with its due diligence,
the country’s haste was founded on good reason. This is because researchers such as
Deichmann et al. [12]
has shown that beyond transportation fuel, biodiesel production from jatropha
is an important option to fuel minigrids for remote areas to aid decentralization of electricity supply,
which supports why the country showed eagerness in tapping into such a valuable resource. Besides,
while there have been a significant negative press associated with jatropha plantations in Ghana,
it should not be overlooked that in communities where the companies showed interest in the well-being
of community members, the people appreciated the additional employment options offered and were
Energies 2019,12, 408 16 of 40
supportive of the project. These show that with a diligent approach, jatropha still possess the potential
to contribute significantly to Ghana’s energy needs and rural employment.
4.1.4. Potential of Food Crops for Biofuels
As previously noted, Ghana is home to several crops that have significant potential for biofuel
production if properly tapped. Below, we discuss some of the major agricultural products with high
potential as far as biofuel development is concerned.
Oil Palm
Specifically, oil palm is the focus of several advocates of biofuels due to its high yield, coupled with
easy availability and affordability. In addition, researchers have noted that biodiesel possess a higher
cetane number than the conventional fossil diesel—65 and 55 for the former and latter, respectively.
A cetane number is an indication of the ignition delay for a fuel in an engine. Transesterification is
a common process that is used to derive biodiesel straight from palm oil by reacting triglycerides
with alcohol. It is the most common and accepted process because it is cheap and simple. While
methanol is normally used because it is cheap, other alcohols can be used in the transesterication
process [
81
,
82
]. The use of methanol can yield up to 87 percent of oil to biodiesel. As part of the
process, it has also been noted through several studies that for every ton of biodiesel produced, there is
0.32 ton of glycerol produced as by-product [
83
,
84
]. There is another way through which palm oil
produces biodiesel. In this process, heated oil reacts with hydrogen to produce renewable diesel fuel,
which is also referred to as the hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO). This HVO process is responsible for
the removal of hydrogen from triglycerides. Hydrotreatment is relatively more expensive compared to
the transesterification process [81].
Like many countries in west and central Africa, Ghana produces a significant amount of oil palm
fruit [
85
]. The successes achieved by countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia for using oil palm in
producing substantial amounts of global biodiesel makes oil palm one of the leading candidates of raw
materials for biofuel development in Ghana [
5
]. Duku et al. [
27
] noted that the quantity of palm fruits
that Ghana produces rose substantially between 2001 and 2009 by over 70 percent, from 1.1 million tons
to 1.9 million tons [
69
]. MOFA [
86
] estimates that almost 244,000 tons of oil is produced from Ghana’s
oil palm industry, covering approximately 306,000 ha of plantation. While Ghana derives significantly
more, in terms of revenue, from cocoa, it produces more oil palm fruits in tons [
5
,
27
,
87
]. A majority of
oil palm plantations are located in the rain forest and deciduous zones, within the Ashanti, Western,
and Eastern Regions [
88
]. According to MOFA [
86
], there is about 1 million ha of land suitable for
palm plantations in the country, spread throughout the Ashanti, Western, Eastern, Volta, and Brong
Ahafo Regions.
Most palm plantations are held by smallholder farmers, with farm sizes of up to 7.5 ha [
5
,
86
].
However, there are some notable medium and large scale exceptions in the country. Table 5lists the
major oil companies currently operating in Ghana, along with the areas cultivated [86].
Table 5. List of Major Oil Palm Companies and Areas Cultivated [86].
Company Total Area (ha) Milling Capacity (tons/hour)
Ghana oil palm development company ltd. (gopdc)
22,352 60
Twifo oil palm plantations ltd. (topp) 5924 30
Benso oil palm plantations ltd. (bopp) 6316 27
Norpalm gh. Ltd. 4000 30
Juabin oil mills 1524 15
Ayiem oil mills 250 10
Golden star 720 -
Total 41,086 172
Energies 2019,12, 408 17 of 40
Many varieties of the oil palm trees are cultivated in Ghana, with two main types notably
divided along scale lines. While small-scale farms normally grow a variety known as dura, medium
and large-scale plantations plant the tenera species. The tenera is more useful for industrial scale
production because it has a smaller nut and a thicker mesocarp, and therefore produces more oil [
5
,
89
].
Small-scale farms account for nearly 80 percent of palm oil produced in the country, with the remaining
portion coming from medium-and-large scale plantations [5].
The government of Ghana launched the Presidential Special Initiative (PSI) on Palm Oil Plantation
and Exports that was launched around 2004 as strategy to improve the country’s palm industry.
In total, the PSI planned to cultivate about 100,000 ha of oil palm over a 5-year period in the country.
However, the program has so far led to over 20,000 ha of small-scale oil palm farms cultivated around
country [
27
,
86
]. As part of the program, was also a plan to establish 12 nurseries in the country to raise
1.2 million high-yielding seedlings to supply to farmers, while the Oil Palm Research Institute (OPRI)
of the CSIR was tasked to produce 2 million of such seeds annually [27,90].
According to MOFA [
86
], Ghana currently still has a deficit of about 35,000 tons of palm oil.
The country, therefore, imports between 5 and 10 percent of its total annual production to supplement
local consumption [
5
]. By the estimates of analysis that Afrane [
5
] conducted in his study, Ghana
will have to channel between 17 and 35 percent of its palm oil consumed locally to produce the
quantity of biodiesel that can substitute five and 10 percent of fossil diesel consumed in the country.
He argued that based on current estimates of palm oil deficit, and the high quantity of palm oil
needed to be withdrawn from the local market to produce biodiesel, there is a slim possibility of
achieving significant biodiesel production with oil palm. This observation, notwithstanding, with
the government’s continuing PSI intervention measures and the availability of vast land suitable for
plantations, there still remains significant potential inherent in Ghana’s oil palm industry to support
biofuel production.
Cassava
Cassava is staple food in Ghana, and is therefore commonly grown. Its predominance in the
Ghanaian diet stems from several factors including affordability and easy availability. In addition,
cassava can thrive on lands with marginal quality in tropical regions [
5
]. Some of the most commonly
grown species on the local level are afisiafi and abasafitaa. These two species have significantly high
starch content of over 20 percent. Given this high starch content, cassava has become a suitable
candidate for the production of biofuels—notably, ethanol.
For nearly two decades, there have been significant improvements in cassava strains and
agricultural practices in the cassava industry. These, combined with the fact that the land area
dedicated to cassava production is increasing in size, have contributed to an increase in the quantity of
cassava produced in the country. Figure 10 shows the different rates at which both cassava land area
and tonnage have increased [
5
,
91
]. One of the contributing reasons for the increasing cassava land
area is that fallow periods are constantly decreasing in farms in the country, as in many sub-Sahara
African countries. The reduction in fallow periods contributes to declining soil fertility, and farmers
seeking to grow crops that can thrive in less fertile soils [5].
Afrane [
5
] conducted an analysis on the potential of cassava-based ethanol in replacing petrol
on the local level in different scenarios. In this study, he found that based on 2009 figures, it will
require about 3 percent of locally produced cassava to produce the quantity of ethanol that is capable
of substituting 5 percent of petrol consumed. In using projections for 2019, he found that it will take
even smaller proportion (2 percent) of local cassava to produce ethanol to replace 5 percent of petrol.
By this, it means that it will require about only 10 percent of local cassava to replace 25 percent of the
total quantity of petrol consumed locally.
Energies 2019,12, 408 18 of 40
Energies 2019, 12, 408 17 of 40
in the country to raise 1.2 million high-yielding seedlings to supply to farmers, while the Oil Palm
Research Institute (OPRI) of the CSIR was tasked to produce 2 million of such seeds annually [27,90].
According to MOFA [86], Ghana currently still has a deficit of about 35,000 tons of palm oil. The
country, therefore, imports between 5 and 10 percent of its total annual production to supplement
local consumption [5]. By the estimates of analysis that Afrane [5] conducted in his study, Ghana will
have to channel between 17 and 35 percent of its palm oil consumed locally to produce the quantity
of biodiesel that can substitute five and 10 percent of fossil diesel consumed in the country. He argued
that based on current estimates of palm oil deficit, and the high quantity of palm oil needed to be
withdrawn from the local market to produce biodiesel, there is a slim possibility of achieving
significant biodiesel production with oil palm. This observation, notwithstanding, with the
government’s continuing PSI intervention measures and the availability of vast land suitable for
plantations, there still remains significant potential inherent in Ghana’s oil palm industry to support
biofuel production.
4.1.4.2. Cassava
Cassava is staple food in Ghana, and is therefore commonly grown. Its predominance in the
Ghanaian diet stems from several factors including affordability and easy availability. In addition,
cassava can thrive on lands with marginal quality in tropical regions [5]. Some of the most commonly
grown species on the local level are afisiafi and abasafitaa. These two species have significantly high
starch content of over 20 percent. Given this high starch content, cassava has become a suitable
candidate for the production of biofuels—notably, ethanol.
For nearly two decades, there have been significant improvements in cassava strains and
agricultural practices in the cassava industry. These, combined with the fact that the land area
dedicated to cassava production is increasing in size, have contributed to an increase in the quantity
of cassava produced in the country. Figure 10 shows the different rates at which both cassava land
area and tonnage have increased [5,91]. One of the contributing reasons for the increasing cassava
land area is that fallow periods are constantly decreasing in farms in the country, as in many sub-
Sahara African countries. The reduction in fallow periods contributes to declining soil fertility, and
farmers seeking to grow crops that can thrive in less fertile soils [5].
Figure 10. Annual Cassava Production and Land Area Cultivated [5,91].
Afrane [5] conducted an analysis on the potential of cassava-based ethanol in replacing petrol
on the local level in different scenarios. In this study, he found that based on 2009 figures, it will
require about 3 percent of locally produced cassava to produce the quantity of ethanol that is capable
of substituting 5 percent of petrol consumed. In using projections for 2019, he found that it will take
even smaller proportion (2 percent) of local cassava to produce ethanol to replace 5 percent of petrol.
By this, it means that it will require about only 10 percent of local cassava to replace 25 percent of the
total quantity of petrol consumed locally.
740
780
820
860
900
8
10
12
14
16
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Cultivated Area (1,000 ha)
Cassava Production (1,000,000 MT)
Year
Cassava Production Cultivated Area
Figure 10. Annual Cassava Production and Land Area Cultivated [5,91].
The findings in Afrane [
5
] are an indication that unlike oil palm, using cassava as a feedstock for
biofuel production in Ghana may be easier to implement, without significantly compromising food
consumption. There has also been constant research in producing different varieties of cassava that
have higher starch content that will be even more desirable in terms of ethanol production around the
world. For example, Babaleye [
92
] stated that researchers from the International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture in Nigeria developed species of cassava that had up to 40 percent of starch.
4.1.5. Assessing the Energy Generation Potential of Agricultural Residues and Household Wastes
Agricultural Residues
Ghana generates a sizeable amount of wastes and residues from various agricultural, forestry,
industrial, and household activities, which can be channeled into energy generation purposes [
9
,
22
,
27
].
Specifically, biomass from agricultural by-products has especially been prominent over the past years
in the production of second-generation biofuels [
2
,
27
,
93
]. Agricultural by-products in Ghana are
classified into crop residues, agricultural industrial by-products, and animal waste [
22
,
27
]. In Ghana,
farmers normally leave agricultural residues on the farm after harvesting the target crops, while some
in other cases burn them. Crop residues cover a range of materials including the following: stalk of
various cereal crops such as rice, maize, millet, and sorghum; cocoa pods; and straw [
27
]. According to
Duku et al. [
27
], most of the by-products that emanate from agro-industrial activities are in the form of
husks from cocoa, coconut, and rice; sugar cane bagasse; oil seed cakes; and empty fruit bunch (EFB)
from oil palm. Animal wastes are also typically cow dung burned as a fuel.
Ghana has large swaths of land covered with cocoa plantations, as it is the most important
agricultural contributor to the country’s economy. Being the dominant cash crop, cocoa is grown in
the Western, Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Central, Eastern, and Volta Regions—all in Ghana’s forest zone,
and covers about 1.75 million ha. Normally, cocoa pods are left on farms to mulch. Some of the husks
are exported. However, they have the potential to be power generation, when compressed [27,94,95].
Residues such as stalks, cobs, and husks from maize farms also offer a significant potential
as feedstock for biofuel production [
27
]. The quantity of maize cobs and stalks is said to be over
550,000 tons in Ghana, and this has a potential of yielding about 17.65–18.77 MJ/kg of energy [
9
,
22
].
The stalk of sweet sorghum also has a level of sugar, which makes it also suitable for the production of
ethanol [
27
]. It is estimated that the country produces approximately 136,000 tons of sorghum stalks.
Among prominent agricultural residues are also an estimated 150,000 tons and 56,000 tons of millet
stalk and groundnut shells, respectively [9,22].
There is a significant amount of residues that emanate from the over 300,000 ha of palm plantations
in Ghana. The three main residues from this industry are shells, fronds and EFB. The shells are
Energies 2019,12, 408 19 of 40
particularly suitable for producing activated carbon and heating, while the EFB that is rich in potassium,
and fronds have other uses such as for fertilizer and mulching purposes, respectively [
27
]. It is
estimated that Ghana produces about 193,000 tons of palm shells annually [
9
,
22
]. Coconut trees
that are found predominantly at the coastal areas of the country also generate a significant amount
of residues in the form of husks and shells that also have the potential to be deployed in energy
production [27].
From industrial activities, residues from the wood processing industry are said to top 1 million m
3
per annum. These residues consist of wastes generated at logging sites, and slabs, edgings, sawdust,
off cuttings, peeler cores, among others that are generated from the manufacture of plywood at the
factory level [
18
,
22
]. As EC [
22
] noted, most of these factory produced residues are concentrated in
Kumasi and Accra, where large sawmills and large-scale furniture mills are located. In addition to the
logging and milling residues are the biomass of trees of poor form, which are rejected for commercial
sale that have significant potential for energy generation [22].
Regarding animal wastes, Bensah [
96
] has found that there is a considerable potential to generate
significant amount of energy from them, especially in the three northern regions of the country. Cattle
rearing are leading occupation for many residents in the northern regions, and therefore produce a
huge quantity of cow dung. Table 6shows that there is an average of 15 cattle per household in the
three northern regions put together, with the breakdown per region. Owing to this, the potential to
develop household level biogas plants due to the quantity of cow dung generated per household can
be tapped to produce energy for cooking and lighting.
Table 6. Cattle Populations in the Three Northern Regions of Ghana [96].
Region Cattle
Production
No. of Cattle Owning
Households
No. of Cattle Owning
Agricultural Households
Average No. of Cattle Per
Agricultural Household
Northern 982,287 98,090 85,142 11.5
Upper west 787,681 28,250 23,645 33.3
Upper east 454,112 47,577 39,441 11.5
Total 2,224,640 173,917 148,228 15.0
Per the preceding, it is also obvious that Ghana produces a significant stock of crop residues
that have the potential to be subjected to modern biomass energy technologies such as anaerobic
digestion and gasification to produce power. On the other hand, however, residues play a significant
role in the traditional agricultural practices in Ghana, and any alternative uses must be pursued with
caution. This is because as agricultural systems that utilize very little synthetic inputs, burning crop
residues on farms can serve a range of purposes including facilitating harvesting and pest control
measures. In addition, the residues that are left on farms also decay, and serve to replenish soil fertility,
which absent will adversely affect productivity agricultural, and can threaten food security [1,27,97].
Municipal and Household Wastes
In Ghana, there is a huge quantity of wastes that are generated from households and
municipalities, posing a significant sanitation challenge to municipal authorities and other responsible
agencies. It has been estimated that the waste generated in a city in a day is about 0.6 kg/person [
9
,
98
].
The amounts of wastes produced are significantly higher for the two most populous cities in the country,
namely, Kumasi and Accra, with about 1600 tons/day and about 2500 tons/day, respectively [
22
].
Many countries have resorted to waste-to-energy technologies, through biogas production, to achieve
the dual purpose of managing wastes and generating power. In Ghana, based on the amount of
wastes that is generated on a daily basis, there is a real potential towards exploiting such routes,
with adequate funding.
Energies 2019,12, 408 20 of 40
4.2. Current Status and Potential Solar Energy Integration
Like many countries in Africa, solar energy remains an important alternative source for energy
production in Ghana. Ghana’s geographical location in the tropics means that there is relatively
high solar radiation distributed throughout the year in all of its ten regions [
18
,
99
,
100
]. The Ghana
Meteorological Services Agency has collected solar radiation and sunshine duration data over the past
half century. Likewise, other research institutions and international organizations have also conducted
similar monitoring exercises [
22
]. For instance, in 2002, UNDP carried out the Solar and Wind
Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA) project that assessed the potential of solar energy resources
in the country, based on data from the high resolution geostationary satellite Meteosat [
101
,
102
].
The country’s annual daily mean of total solar radiation is estimated to be 4.0–6.5 kWh/m
2
/day,
with a sunshine duration of about 1800–3000 h per year [
18
,
102
,
103
]. Figure 11 depicts a graphical
representation of the distribution of relative solar radiation intensity across Ghana.
Energies 2019, 12, 408 20 of 40
Figure 11. Distribution of Solar Radiation Intensity in Ghana [102,104].
As seen in Figure 11, the three northern regions of Ghana, with the lowest electrification rates in
the country, have the highest solar energy potential [9,18]. The individual solar irradiation
measurements carried out multiple locations spread throughout the country supported the assertion
that the highest potential for solar energy dwells in the northern part of Ghana [104]. The monitoring
exercise, for comprehensiveness and complementarity, utilized both ground and satellite
measurements. In both measurement approaches, Yendi, Navrongo, and Wa, all in the three northern
regions, recorded the highest solar irradiation, as shown in Figure 12 [22,104].
Figure 11. Distribution of Solar Radiation Intensity in Ghana [102,104].
Energies 2019,12, 408 21 of 40
As seen in Figure 11, the three northern regions of Ghana, with the lowest electrification rates in the
country, have the highest solar energy potential [
9
,
18
]. The individual solar irradiation measurements
carried out multiple locations spread throughout the country supported the assertion that the highest
potential for solar energy dwells in the northern part of Ghana [
104
]. The monitoring exercise,
for comprehensiveness and complementarity, utilized both ground and satellite measurements. In both
measurement approaches, Yendi, Navrongo, and Wa, all in the three northern regions, recorded the
highest solar irradiation, as shown in Figure 12 [22,104].
Energies 2019, 12, 408 21 of 40
Figure 12. Distribution of Solar Energy Potential at Specific Locations in Ghana [104].
The VRA showed that the country has the interest in tapping into solar energy on a large scale
by constructing a 2.5 MW solar power plant in Navrongo [4,21]. This plant, at the time of completion,
was the largest in mainland West Africa. The authority has also since embarked on a project that
added 155 MW of power on board through solar energy [105]. Besides the interest in large-scale
deployment, the appeal of solar energy also stems from the potential for decentralization, in that it
can contribute to electrification of small settlements that are far from the national grid [12,21]. In
addition, solar photovoltaic (PV) systems have shown considerable potential to contribute to
electricity generation for traffic lighting, water pumping, household lighting, and rural vaccine
storage, among others [18,57]. By 2011, the EC estimated that about 4500 solar systems had been
installed in almost 90 countries around the country, with breakdown by purpose shown in Table 7.
According to Kemausuor et al. [18], the current total number of solar PV systems deployed in the
country demonstrates a relatively sharp increase in solar energy development in Ghana over the past
two decades and half. This is because by 1991, there were only 335 PV systems installed over the
country, with a meagre 160 peak kilowatts of estimated total power generated from them [106,107].
Table 7. Solar PV Systems Installation in Ghana by Purpose [22].
Places/Purpose Of Solar PV
Systems Deployment Installed Capacity (kw) Average Annual Production (gwh)
Rural homes 450 0.70–0.90
Urban homes 20 0.05–0.06
Schools 15 0.01–0.02
Lighting of health centers 6 0.01–0.10
Vaccine refrigeration 42 0.08–0.09
Water pumping 120 0.24–0.25
Telecommunication 100 0.10–0.20
Battery charging 10 0.01–0.02
Grid connection 60 0.10–0.12
Streetlights 10 0.04–0.06
Total 853 1.34–1.82
Many researchers have conducted empirical studies that assess that impacts of solar energy
development on quality of life in off-grid communities. In the study of Kankam and Boon [23], the
authors examined the link between government energy policies, such as solar PV systems
deployment, on rural development in the Nwodua, Langa, Bognayili, and Changnayili communities
from the Northern Ghana. In the study the authors found that solar systems in homes, in addition to
local kerosene have contributed significantly to lighting services in homes in non-electrified
communities. In gridded communities, however, the authors found that the residents preferred
electricity supply from central grid to solar energy. The authors explained that while the prospects
of solar energy development is promising, the current government approach to solar energy to allow
the private sector play a leading role in the context of the country’s overall energy policy in has made
4.00
5.00
6.00
Solar Irradiation (KWh/m²/day
Location
Solar Irradiation in Selected Locations
Ground Measurement Satelite Data
Figure 12. Distribution of Solar Energy Potential at Specific Locations in Ghana [104].
The VRA showed that the country has the interest in tapping into solar energy on a large scale by
constructing a 2.5 MW solar power plant in Navrongo [
4
,
21
]. This plant, at the time of completion,
was the largest in mainland West Africa. The authority has also since embarked on a project that added
155 MW of power on board through solar energy [
105
]. Besides the interest in large-scale deployment,
the appeal of solar energy also stems from the potential for decentralization, in that it can contribute
to electrification of small settlements that are far from the national grid [
12
,
21
]. In addition, solar
photovoltaic (PV) systems have shown considerable potential to contribute to electricity generation for
traffic lighting, water pumping, household lighting, and rural vaccine storage, among others [
18
,
57
].
By 2011, the EC estimated that about 4500 solar systems had been installed in almost 90 countries
around the country, with breakdown by purpose shown in Table 7. According to Kemausuor et al. [
18
],
the current total number of solar PV systems deployed in the country demonstrates a relatively sharp
increase in solar energy development in Ghana over the past two decades and half. This is because by
1991, there were only 335 PV systems installed over the country, with a meagre 160 peak kilowatts of
estimated total power generated from them [106,107].
Table 7. Solar PV Systems Installation in Ghana by Purpose [22].
Places/Purpose of Solar PV
Systems Deployment Installed Capacity (kw) Average Annual Production (gwh)
Rural homes 450 0.70–0.90
Urban homes 20 0.05–0.06
Schools 15 0.01–0.02
Lighting of health centers 6 0.01–0.10
Vaccine refrigeration 42 0.08–0.09
Water pumping 120 0.24–0.25
Telecommunication 100 0.10–0.20
Battery charging 10 0.01–0.02
Grid connection 60 0.10–0.12
Streetlights 10 0.04–0.06
Total 853 1.34–1.82
Energies 2019,12, 408 22 of 40
Many researchers have conducted empirical studies that assess that impacts of solar energy
development on quality of life in off-grid communities. In the study of Kankam and Boon [
23
],
the authors examined the link between government energy policies, such as solar PV systems
deployment, on rural development in the Nwodua, Langa, Bognayili, and Changnayili communities
from the Northern Ghana. In the study the authors found that solar systems in homes, in addition
to local kerosene have contributed significantly to lighting services in homes in non-electrified
communities. In gridded communities, however, the authors found that the residents preferred
electricity supply from central grid to solar energy. The authors explained that while the prospects of
solar energy development is promising, the current government approach to solar energy to allow
the private sector play a leading role in the context of the country’s overall energy policy in has made
investments unfavorable. This is because, as they argue, the solar energy sector receives significantly
less subsidies compared with what conventional energy delivery receives. Kankam and Boon [
23
],
therefore, recommended that government implements a policy that advances equal level of subsidies
for solar energy delivery, in order to encourage private participation, and stimulate fair competition
with conventional energy option.
Obeng and Evers [
99
] also conducted a study to analyze the impacts of solar PV electrification
systems on micro-enterprises that are located in off-grid rural communities. In this study, the authors
considered communities that are located in five out of the ten regions, namely; Northern, Upper West,
Volta, Brong Ahafo and Greater Accra regions. All communities that were selected because they
were beneficiaries of two major public sector solar PV electrification projects—MOE/Spanish Funded
Solar PV Electrification Project and UNDP-GEF/RESPRO—that were implemented between 1998 to
2003. The authors developed a set of indicators to analyze the relationships between enterprise-level
electrification status and economic output, by using systematic sampling to select those with and
without solar PV electrification. The empirical results revealed a statistically significant association
between solar PV lighting and increased income of US$ 5–12/day in grocery enterprises. It also
revealed that some costs are avoided by using solar PV in off-grid enterprises instead of kerosene
lanterns, which amounted to an estimated US$1–5/month.
The above-referenced studies provide further indication of the potential benefits of exploiting the
naturally decentralized capabilities of solar energy to power small communities.
Deichmann et al. [12]
revealed, the estimated levelized marginal costs of electricity supply from central grids in many African
countries are estimated to be between 16 and 50 cents/kWh for most demand areas but such cost
steeply rises to over a dollar for most remote areas. In addition, the strength of local solar radiation
determines the cost of solar PV generated electricity. In Ghana, the three northern regions have the
highest incidence solar radiation, while also being the least connected to grid electricity. For these
reasons, it is safe to assume that the benefits of tapping into solar energy may best be realized for rural
communities in the northern part of the country. For the country to reap the exploit the potential to the
maximum, however, it is important to address challenges such as improving market competitiveness
with policies and interventions of fair subsidies to incentivize private sector ventures.
4.3. Status and Potential of Wind Energy Development
Wind energy remains fringe in the Ghanaian energy supply system, but it has received quite
considerable amount of attention in recent years due to the fact many researchers have advocated that
it is relatively cheaper compared to other renewables [
108
,
109
]. For wind energy, the wind turbines
produce electrical energy by converting the kinetic energy of the wind with their rotating blades. Wind
energy is appealing because it is free and available both day and night, and has an onshore technical
potential of about 20,000
×
10
9
–50,000
×
10
9
kWh per year around the globe, which is greater than the
current total annual world electricity consumption of about 15,000
×
10
9
kWh. Investments in wind
energy have grown by about an average of 22 percent over the past 10 years, currently constitutes
about 2.5 percent of global electricity supply. The economic potential of wind depends on factors such
as average wind speed, intensity of turbulence, distribution of statistical wind speed, and the cost of
Energies 2019,12, 408 23 of 40
wind turbine systems [
21
,
57
,
110
,
111
]. Anderson et al. [
112
] stated that it is always imperative to know
the possible extent of wind resources within any country to determine its viability as an energy source,
before installing a wind turbine.
To this extent, a series of assessments have been systematically conducted in Ghana to examine
wind energy potential over the past 20 years [
113
]. The Ghana Meteorological Services Department
has traditionally measured wind data in Ghana, and has observed that wind speed in most parts of
the country is between 1.7 and 3.1 m/s at a height of 2 m based on data collected from 22 synoptic
stations [
4
,
9
,
21
]. However, as NREL [
114
] explained, 2 m data are usually not useful when assessing
the potential of wind resource for power generation at utility scale. This is attributed to the many
obstructions and surface roughness near the ground [
9
,
114
]. In this regard, the Ghana EC conducted
higher altitude assessments along the country’s coast to assess wind resources for power generation.
The assessments found the average wind speed per month to be 4.8–5.5 m/s, at an altitude of
12 m [9,113]
. As part of the SWERA project, the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
also carried out a comprehensive assessment on the potential of wind resources in Ghana, as part of
the initiative to supply more reliable renewable energy resource information around the globe [
56
].
The NREL carried out assessments based on data collected from the U.S. National Climatic Data Center
(NCDC) derived DATSAV2 global climatic database, which contains information from 21 stations
in Ghana. The data collected was combined with information from the Ghana EC’s wind resources
measurements, satellites, and the Meteorological Services Department (MSD). The NREL developed a
high resolution 1 km wind energy resource maps for the country at 50 m above ground, with the goal
of showing areas with the greatest potential for large-scale wind turbines that could be connected to
the country’s grid [
114
]. Figure 13 below shows the final wind resource map as produced from the
SWERA project.
According to the NREL findings, there is an estimated area of 413 km
2
in the country with a
class 4–6 wind resource, categorized as good-to-excellent, which can support more than 2000 MW of
wind power development. According to their findings, the amount of energy could increase to about
5640 MW, if areas with moderate potential are included. An annual average wind speed of between
7.1 and 9.0 m/s cover this range of “moderate” to “excellent” wind energy potential over a 1000 km
2
area [18,21,114,115].
As can be seen from the wind resource map, the southeast portion of Ghana, around Accra, has a
Class 2 (6.2–7.1 m/s) wind resource at a height of 50 m. The northwest portion of Accra and the
areas along the border of Togo to the east of the country, however, are characterized by the good
to excellent Class 5 (8.4–9.0 m/s) wind resource, possessing the highest wind energy development
potential in the country. It is estimated that this area that covers about 300–400 km
2
of land area can
yield about 600–800 W/m
2
power density [
9
,
113
,
114
]. While not all areas in the country may have
the potential for commercial wind energy projects, Kemausuor et al. [
18
] indicated that even lower
wind speeds nearer ground level may be suitable for energy conversion devices such as wind-powered
water pumping systems.
A more recent study has confirmed the distribution of wind resource potential in Ghana [
116
].
In this assessment, five modern meteorological masts of 60 m were mounted at five selected sites
along Ghana’s coastal zone the end of 2011. In this project, the researchers collected wind speed
measurements at 40 m, 50 m and 60 m above ground, as well as the direction of wind at 47 m and
57 m above ground, in sites located in the following communities: Ningo (Greater Accra Region),
Ekumfi Edumafa (Central Region), Gomoa Fetteh (Central Region), Avata (Volta Region), and Atiteti
(Volta Region). Figure 14 presents the results of the wind speed measurements obtained from the
assessment. After obtaining the results, they were extrapolated to produce potential wind speeds
at 80 m and 100 m above ground to determine the viability of deploying commercially available
wind turbines, which are of similar heights above ground. A simulation of wind turbines at all the
conducted sites was also conducted, and they are produced capacitor factors that revealed that there
are economically viable sites for wind-farm projects in Ghana [116].
Energies 2019,12, 408 24 of 40
Energies 2019, 12, 408 23 of 40
The assessments found the average wind speed per month to be 4.8–5.5 m/s, at an altitude of 12 m
[9,113]. As part of the SWERA project, the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) also
carried out a comprehensive assessment on the potential of wind resources in Ghana, as part of the
initiative to supply more reliable renewable energy resource information around the globe [56]. The
NREL carried out assessments based on data collected from the U.S. National Climatic Data Center
(NCDC) derived DATSAV2 global climatic database, which contains information from 21 stations in
Ghana. The data collected was combined with information from the Ghana EC’s wind resources
measurements, satellites, and the Meteorological Services Department (MSD). The NREL developed
a high resolution 1 km wind energy resource maps for the country at 50 m above ground, with the
goal of showing areas with the greatest potential for large-scale wind turbines that could be
connected to the country’s grid [114]. Figure 13 below shows the final wind resource map as
produced from the SWERA project.
According to the NREL findings, there is an estimated area of 413 km2 in the country with a class
4–6 wind resource, categorized as good-to-excellent, which can support more than 2000 MW of wind
power development. According to their findings, the amount of energy could increase to about 5640
MW, if areas with moderate potential are included. An annual average wind speed of between 7.1
and 9.0 m/s cover this range of “moderate” to “excellent” wind energy potential over a 1000 km2 area
[18,21,114,115].
Figure 13.
Map of Wind Energy Potential Distribution in Ghana with Wind Speed at 50 m Height [
114
].
Energies 2019, 12, 408 24 of 40
Figure 13. Map of Wind Energy Potential Distribution in Ghana with Wind Speed at 50 m Height
[114].
As can be seen from the wind resource map, the southeast portion of Ghana, around Accra, has
a Class 2 (6.2–7.1 m/s) wind resource at a height of 50 m. The northwest portion of Accra and the
areas along the border of Togo to the east of the country, however, are characterized by the good to
excellent Class 5 (8.4–9.0 m/s) wind resource, possessing the highest wind energy development
potential in the country. It is estimated that this area that covers about 300–400 km2 of land area can
yield about 600–800 W/m2 power density [9,113,114]. While not all areas in the country may have the
potential for commercial wind energy projects, Kemausuor et al. [18] indicated that even lower wind
speeds nearer ground level may be suitable for energy conversion devices such as wind-powered
water pumping systems.
A more recent study has confirmed the distribution of wind resource potential in Ghana [116].
In this assessment, five modern meteorological masts of 60 m were mounted at five selected sites
along Ghana’s coastal zone the end of 2011. In this project, the researchers collected wind speed
measurements at 40 m, 50 m and 60 m above ground, as well as the direction of wind at 47 m and 57
m above ground, in sites located in the following communities: Ningo (Greater Accra Region),
Ekumfi Edumafa (Central Region), Gomoa Fetteh (Central Region), Avata (Volta Region), and Atiteti
(Volta Region). Figure 14 presents the results of the wind speed measurements obtained from the
assessment. After obtaining the results, they were extrapolated to produce potential wind speeds at
80 m and 100 m above ground to determine the viability of deploying commercially available wind
turbines, which are of similar heights above ground. A simulation of wind turbines at all the
conducted sites was also conducted, and they are produced capacitor factors that revealed that there
are economically viable sites for wind-farm projects in Ghana [116].
Figure 14. Measure of Wind Speed at Specific Locations in Ghana using NRG 60m XHD Wind Mast
[116].
Adaramola et al. [21] has also conducted a study that showed that economic feasibility of wind
energy in Ghana may depend on specifics such as the type of turbine that a developer decides to
deploy. The researchers evaluated the wind energy potential and the economic viability of deploying
different wind turbines for electricity generation along six selected sites along Ghana’s coast. The six
locations were, namely: Adafoah, Anloga, Aplaku, Mankoadze, Oshiyie, and Warabeba. According
to Adaramola et al. [21], the selected areas were classified as possessing low to medium wind speed
regimes. Based on existing data, the researchers elected to perform the economic analysis on selected
small to medium size commercial wind turbines to ascertain the best option, in order guide
government and stakeholder decisions regarding investment in wind energy resources. The
researchers analyzed the performance and economic efficiency for four small commercial wind
turbine models that ranged from 50 kW to 250 kW, namely: Polaris 15–50, CF-100, Garbi-150/28 and
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
Atiteti Ningo Avata Ekumfi
Narkwa
Senya Beraku
Wind Speed (m/s)
Location
Wind Speed at Selected Locations
40m Height 50m Height 60m Height
Figure 14.
Measure of Wind Speed at Specific Locations in Ghana using NRG 60m XHD Wind
Mast [116].
Energies 2019,12, 408 25 of 40
Adaramola et al. [
21
] has also conducted a study that showed that economic feasibility of wind
energy in Ghana may depend on specifics such as the type of turbine that a developer decides to
deploy. The researchers evaluated the wind energy potential and the economic viability of deploying
different wind turbines for electricity generation along six selected sites along Ghana’s coast. The six
locations were, namely: Adafoah, Anloga, Aplaku, Mankoadze, Oshiyie, and Warabeba. According
to Adaramola et al. [
21
], the selected areas were classified as possessing low to medium wind speed
regimes. Based on existing data, the researchers elected to perform the economic analysis on selected
small to medium size commercial wind turbines to ascertain the best option, in order guide government
and stakeholder decisions regarding investment in wind energy resources. The researchers analyzed
the performance and economic efficiency for four small commercial wind turbine models that ranged
from 50 kW to 250 kW, namely: Polaris 15–50, CF-100, Garbi-150/28 and WES 30, in order of size.
The cut-in wind speeds, and moderate rated wind speeds ranged from 2.2–2.7 m/s, and 9.5–13 m/s,
respectively. The researchers found out that the electricity output a wind turbine achieved and its size
were positively correlated, with the WES 30 achieving the greatest in all sites. However, as the authors
argued, the decision on selecting a suitable turbine should not only be based on the size, but also on its
ability to generate electricity at a cheaper cost, all things considered. In this context, the capacity factor
of a wind turbine must be combined with the total energy output, in order to assess the economic
viability of wind energy project. In terms of capacity factor, the Polaris 15-50, which was the smallest
turbine in terms of size, had the highest value in all locations. In relation to end user tariffs in Ghana
in 2012, the researchers concluded that overall, the CF-100 model was the most economically viable
option at all the selected sites. Adaramola et al. [
21
] also concluded that wind turbines with a cut-in
wind speed of less than 3 m/s and moderate rated wind speed between 9 and 11 m/s will be more
suitable for wind energy development along the coastal region of Ghana.
From the above, it is notable that while wind energy has not achieved a significant penetration
into the Ghana energy market, there is no shortage of interest in the venture. In fact, it can be seen that
researchers have moved from theoretical viability assessments to practical feasibility analysis in many
areas. The VRA is already erecting a 100 MW wind power plant in Kpone, while also undertaking
scoping studies to construct a 150 MW plant, which will be divided equally between communities
in the Volta and Greater Accra Regions [
22
,
117
]. Without doubt, the wind energy potential in the
coastal Regions of Ghana seem high enough to be encouraged, and with the appropriate policies and
incentives instituted, it could play a remarkable role over the next decade in Ghana’s SDG number
seven pursuit.
4.4. Small-to-Medium Scale Hydropower
Assessments carried out in Ghana have identified an estimated 2000 MW of additional
hydropower potential around the country. Of this total, it is estimated that 1200 MW will be derived
from the traditional large scale ones as those already used in the country, while small and medium
scale ones could be developed around the country to supply the remaining 800 MW [
9
,
18
,
118
,
119
].
So far, researchers have identified about 70 sites that have been declared as with the potential to
accommodate small and medium hydro sites around the country. Hydro sites are considered as small
if they are capable of producing only less than 1 MW of electricity, while those that produce between
1 MW and 100 MW are categorized as medium. Figure 15 shows some of the prominent identified
sites in Ghana as of 2011. As it can be deduced from the map, the potential of small-to-medium hydro
is more concentrated in the following five regions: Brong Ahafo, Ashanti, Volta, Eastern and Central
Region [
9
,
18
,
120
]. On the six rivers, Black Volta, White Volta, Oti River, Tano, Pra, and Ankobra alone,
EC [
22
] has stated that there are up to 17 possible sites for hydroelectric plants that can generate over
10 MW of electricity.
Energies 2019,12, 408 26 of 40
Energies 2019, 12, 408 26 of 40
Figure 15. Small and Medium Hydro Sites in Ghana [22].
While the number of sites identified can be described as significant, Gyamfi et al. [9] asserts that
none of them has been developed to produce power till today. This is because from the government’s
perspective, there was too little economic incentive in investing in mini-hydro projects since there
was excess cheap power produced from the Akosombo and Kpong hydropower plants [9]. The
neglect of mini-hydro currently seems to be a substantial waste in potential resource that could
alleviate the energy struggles of Ghana since small hydro sites can be developed with relatively
simple run-of-river projects [18,120]. However, it is important to note that current flows of many
previously identified potential sites have waned over the years due to deforestation around
catchment areas, making them less technically feasible [120].
A study conducted by Miller et al. [9] has introduced an interesting dimension to the small and
medium hydro power development discourse in Ghana. According to Miller et al. [9], the reason for
which the potential of small hydro power development is dwindling may be down to the technology.
They explained that potential energy extraction (hydropotential) is the mode of energy generation
technology that has traditionally been used for almost all large and small hydropower systems. This
approach, they said, requires complex infrastructure, including the creation of dam or a weir
structure to serve as a reservoir, which is often accompanied by expensive maintenance and
ecological consequences such as flooding. On the other hand, the expensive infrastructure may yield
minimal returns, if the water level dwindles as in the case of many of the potential small hydro sites
in Ghana. Miller et al. [9] advocated that implementation of hydrokinetic power (HKP), which is a
Figure 15. Small and Medium Hydro Sites in Ghana [22].
While the number of sites identified can be described as significant, Gyamfi et al. [9] asserts that
none of them has been developed to produce power till today. This is because from the government’s
perspective, there was too little economic incentive in investing in mini-hydro projects since there was
excess cheap power produced from the Akosombo and Kpong hydropower plants [
9
]. The neglect
of mini-hydro currently seems to be a substantial waste in potential resource that could alleviate the
energy struggles of Ghana since small hydro sites can be developed with relatively simple run-of-river
projects [
18
,
120
]. However, it is important to note that current flows of many previously identified
potential sites have waned over the years due to deforestation around catchment areas, making them
less technically feasible [120].
A study conducted by Miller et al. [
9
] has introduced an interesting dimension to the small and
medium hydro power development discourse in Ghana. According to Miller et al. [
9
], the reason for
which the potential of small hydro power development is dwindling may be down to the technology.
They explained that potential energy extraction (hydropotential) is the mode of energy generation
technology that has traditionally been used for almost all large and small hydropower systems.
This approach, they said, requires complex infrastructure, including the creation of dam or a weir
structure to serve as a reservoir, which is often accompanied by expensive maintenance and ecological
consequences such as flooding. On the other hand, the expensive infrastructure may yield minimal
Energies 2019,12, 408 27 of 40
returns, if the water level dwindles as in the case of many of the potential small hydro sites in Ghana.
Miller et al. [
9
] advocated that implementation of hydrokinetic power (HKP), which is a new power
generation technology, may be ideal in tapping into the energy potential in the 70 dormant sites in
Ghana. The HKP technology involves directly setting up a turbine in a stream to extract flow or
kinetic energy, which is converted to energy. This means that a decline in water volume Apart from
the easiness associated with this technology, according to Miller et al. [
9
], it also succeeds where the
hydropotential technology fall short by exerting an overall smaller effect on the stream. This is because
unlike the traditional hydropotential energy, HKP achieves less than 70 percent flow rate decrease
in streams, and also results in fewer changes to downstream locations such as completely removing
the water source. Through their analysis, Miller et al. [
9
] found that the adoption of HKP technology,
apart from being more environmentally and socially benign, can convert nearby streams and rivers to
robust and economically efficient reservoirs of energy, which have the capacity result in savings of
2.5 cents per kWh. From this study, it is clear that small and medium hydro energy may have even
more prospects than is currently assumed, and if developed, could significantly contribute to Ghana’s
drive towards provision of sustainable energy for all.
5. What Will a Successful SDG 7 Pursuit Mean for Other National Goals?
Both developing and developed countries stand to benefit from increasing adoption of more
reliable and environmentally friendly energy sources. Most developed countries seek to meet
their targets in Kyoto protocol, while developing countries seek to minimize the already gloomy
predictions of climate change on their sustenance, being that they are the most vulnerable.
For developing countries, achieving sustainable energy for all, may have several concomitant benefits
as researchers have intimated that there is a direct relationship between energy use and socioeconomic
indicators [23,27]
. Ghana is no different from its counterparts in the sub-region and around the globe.
There are several ways in which Ghana’s ability to make good on its commitment to achieving SDG
number seven can benefit the country, and we have elaborated on some of the critical ones below.
5.1. Employment Generation and Other Socioeconomic Implications
The Ghanaian government has for the most part of the last decade sought to reduce socioeconomic
inequalities by increasing employment and ensuring rapid reduction in poverty. There have been many
national policies instituted to support this goal such as the Ghana Shared Growth and Development
Agenda (GSGDA), which sought to maintain macro-economic stability and generate higher levels
of shared growth [
22
]. However, the chronic power crisis that plagues it make it difficult to achieve
this goal. Chien and Hu [
121
] have conducted studies that empirically established that increased
deployment of renewable energy correlated with increasing GDP. The results of their study is at least a
rough indication that Ghana’s economy can see a significant improvement in its economy should it
increase its use of renewable energy. Many large industries consume substantial amounts of energy,
which if supplied with cheaper and more reliable energy will have a tremendous impacts in terms of
profitability and growth. In Ghana, the mining industry as well as companies such as the VALCO are
the kinds of businesses, whose cost of operations have been significantly increased due to energy crisis,
and has been accompanied by lay-offs. In this regard, supporting energy supply to such industries
with renewable energy will be imperative for job creation and security for workers.
The amount of energy consumed by large industries such as VALCO has also translated into
leaving small and medium scale enterprises (SME) in gridded cities and communities vulnerable in
terms of the amount of energy available to keep them running. Rolling power cuts have had significant
impacts on small businesses, as most business owners have to raise funds for stand-by generators,
which are solely reliant of fossil fuels. Not only does this development increase business costs, it also
comes with many environmental hazards. Developing diverse renewable energy options would go
a long way to alleviate the burden of uncertainty for businesses and provide employment as many
researchers have observed [
3
,
23
,
99
]. These researchers have provided empirical proof that renewable
Energies 2019,12, 408 28 of 40
energy projects boost businesses in off-grid communities by cost savings and extended working hours
with solar PV [
23
,
99
], as well as provide direct employment in renewable energy projects such as
working on biofuel plantations and biogas plants [
3
,
20
,
76
]. The discussion above shows that with
focus on achieving SDG number seven, Ghana can alleviate its huge unemployment rate debacle,
while also generally improving its economy in the process.
5.2. Environmental Benefits
The environmental threats, especially that of climate change, posed by over-reliance on fossil
fuels is one that the pursuit of SDG number seven is to help combat. Renewable energy development
and deployment can significantly minimize greenhouse gas (GHG) pollutant emissions in Ghana [
5
].
Proper implementation of policies to drive local production and use of biomass resources for biofuel
production, according to Duku et al. [
27
] can offset negative repercussions associated with burning
fossil fuels, as well as contribute to waste utilization and erosion control. Given that it is estimated
that every MWh of power produced from advanced biomass technologies saves about 1.6 tons of
CO
2
, it means biofuel technology appropriately pursued will produce environmental benefits for
Ghana [27].
Depending on how biofuel development is approached, it could either support the cause
of environmental sustainability or work against it. Planting energy crops can induce large-scale
deforestation, as has been seen in elsewhere in the Amazonian region [
65
]. Large scale forest clearance
as well as extensive use fertilizers to boost production of energy crops could all accelerate release
of GHGs into the atmosphere, which is contrary to the desired effect of biofuel adoption [
27
,
93
].
In addition to these, as previously observed, large scale removal of crop residues for second generation
biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol can have enormously negative effects on the physical and chemical
properties of soil, as they are critical to restoring soil fertility after decay [
93
]. With all these said,
however, it is important to note that the current over-dependence on traditional woodfuels in Ghana
has been a major contributor to its widespread deforestation and GHG emissions [27]. Ghana and its
African counterparts are projected to release about 7 billion tons of carbon from cooking fires by the
year 2050, which alone will constitute about six percent of total expected GHG emissions from the
continent [
122
]. Ghana produces a substantial amounts of solid wastes as well as wastewater from on
the household level, of which it has difficulty disposing. These wastes can be channeled into biogas
digestion whose energy output can be used to supplement public energy demands such as cooking
and heating, besides effectively dealing with disposal issues [20].
With such available technologies that can readily convert the large amounts of wastes to energy,
there can be a drastic reduction of GHG emissions that comes from burning woodfuels [
20
]. Also,
converting waste materials and dung can yield significant amounts of by-products such as biogas
slurry—a high-value fertilizer alternative—that can be used for agricultural purposes to prevent
depletion of soil fertility [
123
]. It is also important to note that methane, which is known to be
21 times more potent than CO
2
in terms of trapping heating in the atmosphere, is one of the main
gases released from landfills. Methane is also the primary component of biogas, making up about
55–60 percent. From this, it is obvious that Ghana can achieve multiple environmental benefits should
it invest in biogas as part of its attempt to achieve SDG number seven, such as clean power production,
safe waste management and disposal, and drastic reductions in GHG emissions [
27
,
85
,
124
]. In addition
to these benefits, deploying decentralized wind and solar energy systems will also help reduce the
amount of GHGs expended to get rural communities onto centralized grid systems. Furthermore, such
decentralized systems can help reduce the amount of GHGs released from the stand-by generators
that are deployed by majority of businesses and individuals in times of power crisis in the country.
5.3. Health Implications
Using renewable energy to support household cooking and heating can be useful in saving
many lives in Ghana and prevent health problems that arise from inhalation of smoke from burning
Energies 2019,12, 408 29 of 40
biomass, especially for children who have relatively less body weight. Some of the common health
conditions that can arise out of solid biomass burning include childhood acute lower respiratory
infections like pneumonia, in addition to other ocular and cardiovascular diseases [
20
,
22
]. A vast
majority of the population to smoke in the indoor environment due to over-dependence on woodfuels
for cooking [
5
,
20
]. Ghana is said to lose over 500,000 disability adjusted life-years (DALY) —a World
Health Organization (WHO) metric that estimates the burden of death and illness due to a specific
risk factor—every year to indoor air pollution as a result of woodfuel burning. Even direr is WHO’s
estimate that indoor air pollution is culpable for taking as many as 16,600 lives on a yearly basis in
Ghana. Wide-scale introduction and adoption of biogas to replace woodfuels for household purposes
will, therefore, make households healthier by reducing smoke in the kitchen, and mitigate many of the
aforementioned health problems [1,22].
Climate change brings with it with several health consequences, which will result from predicted
extreme weather scenarios. For instance, Lane et al. [
125
] work have mentioned that climate change
may increase the frequency of floods that can lead to the spread of water-borne pathogens into drinking
water sources, as well as discharge of untreated sewage into rivers and other freshwater bodies.
Increasing the use of more sustainable and renewable energy resources will minimize the release of
GHGs into the atmosphere, which can reduce the effects of climate change and its accompanying
health repercussions.
Park et al. [
113
] have also shown that using renewable energy resources can contribute to the
reduction in water-borne diseases in Ghana. They noted in their study, many people have no access to
fresh water for drinking. With only about 35–40 percent of Ghana’s rural population with access to
treated water, coupled with the unusually high levels of fluoride in water sources in northern Ghana,
Park et al. [
113
] demonstrated that the ample supply of wind and solar energy can be tapped into
as a power source for desalination systems. This can reduce the negative health consequences of
consuming untreated water.
Remote areas with no gridded electricity can also be saddled with issues such as inability of safely
store medicines, especially those that need refrigeration. For such areas, many lives can be saved by
deploying renewable energy systems such as PV systems in medical facilities to power refrigerators
to store vaccines [
1
]. Pursuant to the discussions above, one cannot emphasize enough the potential
health benefits that Ghana will witness if it is able to successfully pursue SDG number seven.
5.4. Rural Development
Implementing policies that will increase the use of renewable systems such as decentralized PV
systems in off-grid rural communities will simultaneously increase the development of those areas,
and bridge their gaps with the rest of the country. For instance, the results in Kankam and Boon [
23
]
revealed that between electrified and non-electrified households in the northern Ghana, there was
a statistically significant relationship between electricity production and improving conditions for
education. They also revealed that about 98 and 87 percent in electrified and non-electrified households,
respectively, rated the supply of energy as very positive in its contribution to education outcomes.
Kankam and Boon [
23
] observed that the significant contribution of energy supply towards improving
conditions for education may be ascribed to light services that are generated by PV systems in homes
and public places. The authors also found that community level PV installations had contributed
significantly to supporting adult educational programs. Given the importance of a community’s
population’s educational level to its development, it is without doubt that such outcomes will lead to
accelerated rural development.
The results of Obeng et al.’s [
99
] study is also a significant one that shows that off-grid communities
can see significant increase in development with increased deployment of decentralized solar PV
systems. Obeng et al. [
99
] found that these PV systems have contributed to increasing incomes for
micro-enterprises that operate within their case study communities, due to the fact that they are able
to extend working hours after dark, which would not have been the case prior to the PV installations.
Energies 2019,12, 408 30 of 40
5.5. Women Empowerment
In the pursuit of SDG number seven, another issue that is likely to see a significant breakthrough
in Ghana is women empowerment. Most Ghanaian societies are very traditional and have quite finely
delineated roles for men and women. Women usually are in charge of cooking and are also the ones
primarily involved in the collection of woodfuel and charcoal production. Given that deforestation
and forest degradation have significantly reduced the amount of woodfuel available in fields, women
are increasingly having to spend more time to collect same quantity of woodfuels they would collect
before [20,126].
According to KITE [
30
], many rural women spend at least two to three mornings in a week
to collect woodfuel. This amount of time expended just to have energy for cooking can have a
significant toll on the quality of life women enjoy [
20
,
30
]. Deploying household biogas plants and
solar PV systems for cooking and lighting, respectively, presents reliance on labor-saving energy
technologies [
23
]. Women can utilize this time saved from not gathering woodfuel to engage in more
productive ventures such as education [
20
,
23
]. With increased education, the illiteracy gap between
men and women can be bridged, and women will become more empowered to actively engage in
the formal employment sectors, where they can boost their standards of living and supplement their
household incomes. Without a doubt, installing biogas plants will also bring a welcome respite to
children of school going age in rural areas, who most of the time will have to spend time with their
mothers hunting for woodfuel, rather than engaging in school work, which in the long run widens the
educational gaps between city and rural dwellers.
5.6. Reduction in Local and Regional Conflicts
In Ghana, there are conflicts in many rural areas that could be curbed if renewable energy
systems were widely deployed in the cause of providing sustainable energy for all. Such conflicts
are usually between government agencies such as the Ghana Forestry Commission (FC) whose
mandate is to protect forest biodiversity, and forest communities who depend on forest resources
for household energy purposes. There are several flashpoints in the country because the FC tries
to limit the communities’ exploitation of forest resources, which they deem as one of the primary
causes to forest degradation. Meanwhile, the communities also view the FC’s actions as most of the
time, a deliberate attempt to deny them their right to survive on the only resources which they have.
With the development of biogas in such communities, there is no doubt that there will be significant
less cause for conflicts [
127
]. Of course, it is important to reiterate that such benefits are only possible
under the prudent pursuit of renewable energy, as our discussion in Section 4.1.3 shows that lack of
appropriate regulatory measures for important initiatives such as establishing biofuel plantations can
also breed conflict within communities.
The fossil fuel driven civilization has led to many conflicts around the world due to competition
for precious hydrocarbons. As global crude oil deposits diminish in quantity, the more tensed
relationships between countries become. In Africa, the rich Bakassi Peninsula has been a source
of ownership disputes between Nigeria and Cameroon for several decades [
1
]. Ghana is also currently
embroiled in a dispute with its western neighbor—Ivory Coast—over offshore hydrocarbon deposits,
which is being adjudicated in the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS). If Ghana will
steadfastly pursue a SDG number seven to a success by diversifying to renewable energy, it means
it may have less need for the hydrocarbon deposits in question. Such a development can contribute
immensely to reducing tensions between the two countries, which will safeguard peace in an already
volatile sub-region.
6. Facilitation of Uptake and Barriers to Renewable Energy in Ghana
Like many developing countries, the increase in carbon emissions sabotages sustainable
development in Ghana [
128
]. Hence, the greater degree of emphasis on the expansion of renewable
Energies 2019,12, 408 31 of 40
energy component of Ghana’s energy consumption and supply in recent years. The overarching
objective of the Ghanaian Government is to have a renewable energy sector that is spearheaded
by private investors through the creation of an enabling environment. Some of the government’s
medium term national development policies are as follows: (1) focus on increasing the proportion of
the local energy mix that renewable energy contribute. The government intends to achieve this by
accelerating the implementation of the provision of the Renewable Energy Act, 2011, Act 832 as well as
provide access to waste-to-energy technologies, while facilitating access to the grid for stand-alone
renewable energy power plants; (2) encourage renewable energy use and the deployment of energy
efficient appliances in public and private buildings; (3) facilitate participation of independent power
producers (IPPs) in the generation and distribution of renewable energy; and (4) speed up replacement
of kerosene lanterns with solar ones [129].
Besides the aforementioned goals, the government plans to establish a Renewable Energy Fund,
which will be managed by the Energy Commission. These funds are intended to the used for the
development and promotion of renewable energy initiatives, especially those that involve high start-up
costs, and to fund the feed-in tariff for energy generated from renewable sources. For take-off of the
renewable energy industry, the government is also currently reviewing the exemption of renewable
energy equipment from import duty, and has also prepared a draft renewable energy Power Purchase
Agreement (PPA). There are also regulations and procedures that already exist to ensure that all
renewable energy providers have access to required permits and PPA [129].
While the above policies and steps are notable, there several factors that serve as major obstacles
to the uptake of renewable energy in Ghana. The challenges to Ghana’s renewable energy sector
are multidimensional—socio-behavioral, technical, research and development, and policy—and their
persistence over the years have left Ghana in a position where it is most likely unable to achieve its
own set SNEP target of achieving 10 percent share of renewables in electricity production by 2020 [
130
].
Obeng-Darko [
130
] outlined several legal and regulatory issues that have served to hinder the
progress of uptake of renewable energy in Ghana. Among such issues are the lack of legislative
instruments to support the work of regulatory agencies in the renewable energy sector as well as the
lack of institutional independence of key agencies. Obeng-Darko [
130
] indicated that these issues have
created uncertainty in the renewable energy sector and led to a decline in investor confidence in the
government’s ability to create an enabling environment that supports its own renewable energy goals
and targets. Arguing further in this dimension, Obeng-Darko [
130
] also noted that the adverse impacts
of the lack of single independent regulatory authority in the renewable energy sector. He observed
that this situation creates overlapping, unclear, and non-complementary policy directions for the
development of the sector. Such lack of unidirectionality in policy making undermine investor
confidence in the fledgling sector.
In terms of research and development, while a lot of work has been done, the data generated on
renewable energy in Ghana are still considered by many investors as insufficient and/or unreliable.
For a sector that is yet to be fully tapped, the inconsistency in government policy has adversely
affected a dedicated and sustained effort in conducting research and generating data that investors
regard as enough to justify investments of huge sums. For instance, the government’s withdrawal
from the national biofuel project signified a lack of interest and support on the national level,
which discouraged private investors from making any huge investments in the sector. In another
dimension, the government’s lack of consistency in developing the renewable energy sector manifests
itself in shortage of trained and skilled technical people to oversee projects, which is contributing to
technological immaturity and institutional inexperience [
129
,
130
]. The importance of consistency is
emphasized by Ernst and Young (EY), which developed the renewable energy country attractiveness
index (RECAI). Their index shows that Ghana has, over the years, been unsuccessful in utilizing its
full renewable potential. In this index, only four African countries—South Africa, Kenya, Morocco,
and Egypt—made it to the top 40 countries [
131
]. In their report, EY [
131
] noted the centrality of
effective public-private partnerships (PPP) in supporting research and development, and driving
Energies 2019,12, 408 32 of 40
large-scale renewable energy projects in top performing countries. Arguing in this line, EY [
131
]
identified Morocco and South Africa as two countries in which governments have successfully
deployed PPP as an effective strategy to develop utility-scale projects. This is critical as they indicated
the PPPs facilitate a more effective risk allocation between different parties.
On the socioeconomic aspect of the challenges that the nation face with uptake and growth of
renewable energy, since the government of Ghana has, for decades, publicized its intentions of getting
every community connected to the national grid, many households are reticent to invest in systems
such as solar PV, since they anticipate eventually getting gridded power. The fact that households
with connection to the grid enjoy subsidies, which those using renewable energy do not, increase the
reticence of people transitioning to renewable energy use. Furthermore, this serves as a disincentive
for investors as investments become unprofitable [9,18,119,129].
7. Summary
Ghana has performed creditably in the MDGs era and showed commitment to its goals. It has
likewise embraced the global targets set in the SDGs, with the immediate past president co-chairing
the UN Secretary General’s special group of advocates to develop ground-breaking ideas and ways to
implement the pursuit and adoption of renewable and more sustainable energy systems around the
world [
25
]. While such an honor is a notable recognition of Ghana’s commitment to global goals, it will
be, without doubt, under the microscope of global observers and analysts in the coming years to see if
its declared commitment was backed with works. The goals set for renewable energy, SDG number
seven, has several targets that include increasing supply of modern and sustainable energy services
for all in developing countries through infrastructure expansion and technology upgrade by 2030,
and doubling the rate of improvement of energy efficiency by 2030. While these may be ambitious,
Ghana is endowed remarkable deposits of renewable energy resources, which if properly tapped
can achieve a well-balanced energy mix that will spur it into achieving these targets. This study has
assessed Ghana’s potential of achieving the SDG number seven, by comprehensively reviewing its
energy scene and renewable energy potential.
Ghanaian households, which are typically low income, burn traditional biomass to meet several
energy needs such as cooking and heating. For national electricity production and supply, three large
hydropower stations and thermal power plants remain the main sources, while renewable energy
sources play no significant role [
18
,
20
,
27
]. Sustainable and dependable energy systems is the hallmark
of a modern economy, and the current sources of Ghana’s energy seem not to check either of those
boxes, given that it has been saddled with a chronic power crisis in some years over the past two
decades [
9
,
18
,
23
]. From the review, it is obvious that the necessity of developing a well-balanced
energy mix that incorporates renewable energy resources has not been totally lost on the Ghanaian
government over the years, as it has explored some ventures. However, the pursuit of renewable
energy development can be a double-edged sword, which if not diligently pursued could turn out to
be even more problematic than its traditional counterparts.
Ghana, being a major agricultural nation, has attempted to pursue a large-scale development
of biofuels within the country with the vast range of crops including maize, cassava, sugarcane,
cocoa, and oil palm that are known as useful feedstocks [
20
,
27
]. In addition, the Ghanaian government
developed a strategy of fossil fuel substitution with biodiesel from cultivated jatropha and other energy
crops [
70
,
71
]. These plans, laudable as they seemed, failed to yield the desired results. This is because
the venture which was meant to be locally driven to help wean the country off overdependence on
imported fuels, grew to become a foreign venture that was geared towards export of raw materials [
70
].
Soon, there were accusations of “land grabbing” by foreign interests, which threatened to brew
chaos in communities, and some projects had to be scaled back. While the biofuel project hit a snag,
the developments in the first decade of the century showed that Ghana still has the potential to tap
into it, provided it implements appropriate policies.
Energies 2019,12, 408 33 of 40
Studies have also shown that there is a potential in utilizing inherently decentralized renewable
energy options that are naturally occurring such as solar and wind power in Ghana, especially
as the technologies needed to exploit them continue to advance [
12
]. Kankam and Boon [
23
] and
Obeng et al. [99]
have all conducted studies that show that largely deploying solar PV in off-grid
communities may improve living standards of rural communities, while sparing government coffers
of trying to get distant communities on central grids. Similarly, Adaramola et al. [
21
] study has shown
that while wind energy has not achieved a notable penetration into the Ghanaian energy market, it is
an attractive option along Ghana’s coastal region. However, its economic feasibility may come down
to the type of turbine deployed in terms of size and capacitor factor, which will only be determined by
appropriate analysis on site by site basis.
The analysis has also shown that Ghana can utilize its 70 sites with potential for small and medium
hydropower generation to support its course towards achieving SDG number seven. Dernedde and
Ofosu-Ahenkorah [
120
] have observed that lack of development of the resources combined with
deforestation have led to the decline of prospects in the resource, Miller et al. [
47
] has introduced an
interesting dimension to the discourse. They have found that Ghana can still achieve significant power
generation from the small hydro sites, should it implement HKP technology.
Per the foregoing discussion, there is certainly a lot more to be done for Ghana to be on course
to achieve SDG number seven, in terms of policies, research, and development. The extent to which
Ghana can go in supplying sustainable energy for all by 2030 will be highly dependent on how well it
can integrate renewable energy production into the mainstream of energy supply around the country.
For this to be achieved, however, there is a need to address the uneven subsidy distribution that tip
the scales against investing in the renewable energy sector. In addition, Ghana’s experience with
biofuels presents it with a worthy lesson to be diligent in implementation of renewable energy plans
and policies, in order forestall potential associated problems. With all these taken into consideration,
it is safe to say that even though it may be daunting, Ghana has significant potential to achieve SDG
number seven.
Limitations of the Study
It is imperative to acknowledge that this review has one major limitation. There is a lack of unitary
period of analysis. This is because we synthesized data and information from different time periods
due to the dearth of data and the different studies conducted at different time periods.
8. Recommendations for Priority Research Areas and Policy Considerations
Without doubt, Ghana possess remarkable potential, in theory, to significantly boost local energy
production and improve efficiency of energy delivery systems in order to achieve SDG number
seven. For the foreseeable future, Ghana will need to institute practical measures in order to turn this
theoretical potential into reality. The country will have to pursue the goal of providing sustainable
energy for all, with steady developments for the various kinds of renewable energy. Since renewable
energy development could be beset with its own challenges, it is important to pursue it diligently
in order to neutralize possible negative fallouts. With this in mind, the authors recommend that the
country give the following suggestions attention in its journey towards reaching the SDG number
seven targets:
•
It may be more advisable for Ghana to invest in smaller scale production that focuses on
catering for local energy needs when it comes to first and second generation biofuels rather than
commercial production that has been found to result in negative trade-offs due to accompanying
land use change. It is clear that many villages in Ghana could benefit from alternative source of
energy to alleviate domestic fuel needs. Biofuels can fill in this gap to reduce overdependence
on woodfuels. We recommend that micro- and small-scale biofuel initiatives to be the focus in
remote areas to offer alternative sources of energy. Raw materials in the form of agricultural
wastes and residues may be enough to feed such micro and small scale initiatives, in addition
Energies 2019,12, 408 34 of 40
to household wastes that can be used to feed household biogas plants. Community scale
biofuel production plants can contribute to employment creation, without disturbing traditional
agricultural livelihood base of these communities.
•
While it is important to acknowledge the inherent problems in large scale first and second
generation biofuel projects in Ghana, it is important to state that the potential to pursue it
sustainably still remains. In this regard, the government should explore policies that reverse the
import and export relationship between Ghana and their developing countries counterparts as far
as biofuel development is concerned. Instead of Ghana cultivating and exporting energy crops,
which has led to several “land grabbing” related conflicts, it should rather invest in importing the
knowledge and technology necessary to effectively utilize its biofuel energy potential.
•
In attempt to undertake large scale adoption of first and second generation biofuels, it is important
to institute policies that explore combining energy crops and local food crops, on the same farm in
mixed-cropping practices, rather than large scale mono-cropping. Boamah [
70
] has already shown
that projects that are sensitive to local people’s rights to food security tend to be more successful
than others that do not. Apart from the fact that such mixed-cropping approaches are healthier
for agricultural lands than mono-cropping in terms of limited demand for fertilizers, they also
bring in a welcomed extra income avenue for local farmers on the same piece of land. Hence,
they have positive socioeconomic outcomes for farmers, and are more environmentally friendly.
•
To contribute in meeting targets of SDGs and carbon emissions reduction in Kyoto protocol,
specific policies must be put in place before biofuels are developed and the developments must
undergo careful monitoring and regulation. One of the greatest challenges for governments of
developing countries to meet energy targets of SDGs will be rural electrification. These countries
should design such local specific policies regarding setting up biofuel processing plants in remote
rural areas to provide electricity. This, if successful will mean an alternative to placing such areas
on national grids which are primarily fueled by expensive traditional fossil fuels.
•
Kankam and Boon [
23
] and Obeng et al. [
99
] have provided proof that using developing and
disseminating decentralized solar PV systems in villages would be one of the quickest and easiest
means of providing electricity to remote communities, which can yield immediate benefits. In that
sense, the government should focus on projects that disseminate solar PV to households in remote
areas in the short term, as it works on building capacity of technical people for large-scale projects
in the long term. With large scale projects, Ghana would be following the lead of countries
like Egypt and Morocco that have already started maximizing their unique local conditions for
generation of power of a large scale, by tapping into wind and solar energy to support the energy
sector. While there are high costs associated with large-scale ventures such as those in Egypt and
Morocco, the constant improvements in technology are likely to make them more efficient and
cost-effective in the near future.
•
It is imperative that the Ghanaian government show commitment to providing sustainable energy
for all by revisiting its overall energy policy to expand subsidies to cover renewable energy
development. This is because, as Kankam and Boon [
23
] noted, the government highly subsidizes
conventional energy which tips the scales against renewable energy development efforts such
as solar energy, which discourages private sector participation. Since the Ghanaian consumer
requires government subsidies, the government’s only option is to increase subsidies in the
renewable energy sector to ensure fair competition. Offering such subsidies will be cost-effective
in the medium-to-long term as mini-grids could be built for rural electrification, which will reduce
the enormous financial strain on the finances of power utilities.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization of project was undertaken by M.A., Q.Y., L.D.E.E., S.T. and M.V.;
data gathering and literature review were conducted by M.A., M.E. and E.A.; writing—original draft was
undertaken by M.A., F.C.E., Q.Y., S.T. and M.V.; Writing—review and editing were undertaken by M.A., L.D.E.E.,
M.E., F.C.E. and E.A.
Energies 2019,12, 408 35 of 40
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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