Co-Production as a Driver of Urban Governance Transformation? The Case of the Oplan LIKAS Programme in Metro Manila, Philippines [original]

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This article has been peer-reviewed, accepted and published in:

Galuszka, J. (2019). Co-Production as a Driver of Urban Governance Transformation? The Case of the

Oplan LIKAS Programme in Metro Manila, Philippines. Planning Theory & Practice, 20(3), 395–419.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14649357.2019.1624811

Jakub Galuszka

Co-Production as a Driver of Urban

Governance Transformation? The Case of

the Oplan LIKAS Programme in Metro

Manila, Philippines

Accepted manuscript (Postprint)Journal article |

Co-Production#as#a#Driver#of#Urban#Governance#Transformation?##

The#Case#of#the#Oplan#LIKAS#Programme#in#Metro#Manila,#Philippines#

Jakub#Galuszka#

Habitat#Unit##

Technical#University#of#Berlin#

jakub.galuszka@tu-berlin.de

Keywords:#co-production,#urban#governance,#housing,#resettlement,#Metro#Manila,#civil#

society,#public#sector#

Introduction/

Civil# society# activism# has# been# considered# one# of# the# key# shaping# factors# of#

contemporary# cities# (Castells,# 1983),# particularly# in# a# context# in# which# urbanisation#

pressures#and#exclusionary#urban#development#practice#have#resulted#in#the#emergence#

of#massive#poverty-ridden#informal#settlements.#Although#the#span#of#these#activities#is#

vast#and#difficult#to#describe#in#a#linear#manner,#one#of#the#strains#of#the#current#debate#

captures# these# processes# through# the# concept# of# social# movement-initiated# co-

production#(Watson,# 2014).# The# concept# expands# the# traditional# definitions# that#

consider#co-production# mainly# as# a# way# to# share# resources# and# efforts# by# the#

representatives#of#different#sectors#engaged#in#a#common#project#(Ostrom,#1996).#These#

early# conceptualisations# identify# co-production# as# a# way# to# facilitate# service# delivery#

and#as# a# mechanism# to# reorder#the#relationship# between#the#public# sector# and# the#

citizens.#The#current#debate#goes#a#step#further#by#positioning#co-production#as#a#key#

factor#that#leads#to#a#broader#change#in#urban#governance#structures.#Rather#than#only#

focusing#on#project-based#matters,#co-productive#interventions#are#identified#as#having#

the#potential#for#institutional#restructuring#and#as#a#way#to#integrate#various#voices#in#

the# development# process.# This# line# of# thought# is# amplified# in# the# literature# on# urban#

transformation# in# the# South# (Watson,# 2014),# where# co-production# is# considered# an#

approach#towards#which#urban#poor#groups#consciously#steer#with#the#expectation#of#

gaining# wider# control# over# the# development# process,# accessing# support# from#

governments# and# bettering#their# position# in# the# urban# governance# spectrum#(Mitlin,#

2008).#In#other#words,#these#actors#try#to#scale#up#the#co-productive#approach#with#the#

intention#of#achieving#“far-reaching#change”#(Mitlin#&#Bartlett,#2018,#p.#363).#Within#a#

variety# of# often# contradictory#definitions#(Brandsen# &# Honingh,# 2016)# and# a# highly#

contextualised#application#of#co-production#(Environment#&#Urbanization,#2018),#this#

ambition#of#urban#movements#is#described#as#one#of#the#key#features#of#the#approach#

(Watson# 2014;# Mitlin#&# Bartlett#2018).#However,#with# the# predominant# focus# on# the#

description# of# influential# factors#of# co-production# rather# than# on# their# outcomes#

(Voorberg,#Bekkers#&#Tummers,#2015),#as#well#as#a#focus#on#small-scale#project-based#

case#studies,#reflection#on#the#broader#governance#change#process#and#outcomes,#which#

co-production#is#supposed#to#instigate,#is#largely#missing#in#the#literature.##

The#aim#of#this#article#is#to#reflect#on#such#a#context#and#to#analyse#the#process#of#

governance# change# originated# and# steered# by# the# urban# poor# sector# as# well# as# the#

outcomes# of# this# process# in# terms# of# policy# environment# and# practice.# This# is# done#

through#an#analysis#of#the#two-phased#engagement#of#the#Urban#Poor#Alliance#(UP-ALL)#

with#the#urban#governance#of#Metro#Manila,#and#their#role#as#co-producers#of#a#major#

resettlement# programme# Oplan# LIKAS# (2011-2016)# aiming# at#relocation# and# housing#

development#for#approximately#120,000#informal#settler#families#(ISFs)#living#in#flood-

prone# areas.# The# first# phase#involves#efforts# to#widen# access# to# governance#and# is#

identified# here# as#the# ‘scaling#up’# phase.# The#second,# # ‘governance/implementation’,#

phase#involves# the# execution# of# the# new# position.# Phase# one#includes#the# non-linear#

engagement#of#various#organisations,#which#gradually#advanced#their#position#through#

decades#of#bottom-up#work#based,#to#a#major#degree,# on# principles# of# co-production.#

Building# on#these# activities# and# the# networking# efforts#of# different# groups,# a# major#

coalition#of#urban#poor#-#the#Urban#Poor#Alliance#(UP-ALL)#-#was#established#in#2005#

and#progressively#achieved#a#greater#impact#on#policy#making#matters#(Karaos#&#Porio,#

2005).#The#second#phase#analysed#in#this#article#commenced#in#2010,#when#the#UP-ALL#

signed#a#10-point#covenant#with#then#presidential#candidate#Benigno#Aquino#III,#who#

recognised#the#main#housing#policy#demands#of#the#alliance,#including#the#landmark#co-

productive# approach# of# the# People’s# Plans,# and# its# embedding# in# the# Oplan# LIKAS#

programme.###

The#article#reviews#the#strategies#of#one#of#the#major#urban#poor#movements#in#

Metro#Manila#which#led#them#to#this#position,#as#well#as#the#outcomes#of#attempts#to#

scale#up#the#co-productive#approach#of#the#People’s#Plans#and#in-city#relocation#as#the#

policy# of# choice# in# low-income# housing# programmes# in# Metro# Manila.# As# such,# in#

theoretical# terms,# the# article# critically# contributes# to# the# current# debate# on# co-

production#of#governance#and#reflects#on#the#characteristics,#prospects#and#limits#of#the#

approach# beyond# a# project#scale.# By# doing# so# it# reflects# on# the# broader# premise# of#

forming#alternative#modalities#of#engagement#between#the#state#and#society.#In#other#

words,#it#asks#to#what#extent#the#engagement,#broadly#defined#as#co-production,#enables#

the# formulation# and# embedding# of# inclusion# mechanisms# within# the# governance#

structures# dominated# by# public#sector#and# oriented# towards# the# private# sector’s#

interests.#In# this# sense,# the# article#contributes# to# the# debate# on# urban# governance#

transformation# through# sharpening# a# theoretical# understanding# of# co-production# and#

identifying#the#conditions#that#such#an#approach#would#structure#“planning#and#urban#

development#processes#in#certain#Global#South#contexts”#(Watson,#2014,#p.#63).#Lastly,#it#

tests# the# analytical#approach# (Galuszka,# 2019)# towards# tracing# the# hidden# dynamic#

underlying# civil# society–state# engagement# within# the#context# of# an# exclusionary#

governance#setting.##

Co-production/–/Primary/Concepts/

The#first#studies#of#co-production#were#carried#out#in#North#America#and#the#UK#

in# the# 1970s#and# were# undertaken# within# the# Economics# and# Public# Management#

disciplines.#Initially##their#main#focus#was#on#the#reduction#of#service#delivery#costs#and#

the#increased#efficiency#that#resulted#from#the#sharing#of#responsibilities#and#resources#

by#the#public#sector#and#citizens#involved#in#the#implementation#of#a#common#project.#

The#aspect#involving#the#creation#of#new#types#of#relationships#between#the#involved#

parties#resonated#more#strongly#in#the#following#decades#with#the#recognition#that#co-

production# can#serve# as# a# relevant# tool# to# reorder# the# relationship# between# urban#

dwellers#and#power#holders.#While#some#authors#positioned#this#effect#as#an#instrument#

enabling# negotiations# of# regulations# and# norms# by# citizens# (Bovaird,# 2007),# others#

identified#it# as# an# approach# which# provides# an# opening# for# more# substantial# change#

through#the#sharing#of#power#and#inputs#in#the#service#delivery#process#(Mitlin,#2008;#

Watson# 2014)#and# policy-making# (Whitaker,# 1980).# This# line# of# thought# resonated#

mainly# in# the# literature# on# the# urban# transformation# of# the# South,# where# informal#

urbanisation#remained#a#dominant#(and#often#the#only#available)#housing#mechanism#

for# the# urban# poor.#On# the# one# hand,# their# engagement# with#service# delivery# was#

beneficial# in# that#it# helped# communities# to# internally#build# strong#and# independent#

grassroots# organisations# (Mitlin,# 2008)#through# fostering#the# need# to# federate# and#

engage#in#collective#action#(Appadurai,#2001).#On#the#other#hand,#activities#like#mapping#

(Watson,# 2014),# enumeration# (Patel,# Baptist#&# d’Cruz,#2012),# saving# schemes# (Mitlin,#

2008;# Archer,# 2012)# and# microfinance# (McFarlane,# 2012a),# translated# to# creation# of#

own# financial# base# and# knowledge# base#which# helps# challenging# existing# power#

relations#(Jasanoff,# 2004)#and,# in# effect,# recalibrating# the# strategies# of# the# authorities#

(Roy,# 2009a).# As# a# consequence,# an# enhancement# of# the# negotiating#potential#of# the#

communities# and# a# strengthening# of# their# position,# vis-à-vis#the# state,# was# identified,#

including# the# opportunity# to# challenge# the# conventional# modes# of# service# delivery.#

Thanks# to# these# features,#the# approach# was# applied# as# a# deliberate# strategy# by#the#

urban# poor,# with# the# aim# of# shifting# the#power#structures# and# attaining# wider#

responsibility#for#the#planning#and#delivery#of#developmental#goods#(Boonyabancha#&#

Kerr,# 2018).# From# the# public# sector# point# of# view,# this# approach# remained# attractive#

because#it#allowed#for#increased#service#delivery,#access#to#information#and#the#design#

of#better#urban#solutions.#This#is#particularly#relevant#in#the#context#of#informal#areas#

where#some#well-established#developmental#models#might#not#work#(Brown-Luthango#

&# Reyes,# 2018).# For# instance,# in#the# face# of#declining# traditional# registration#

mechanisms,#community-led# enumeration# helped# the# public# sector# to# understand#the#

actual#number#of#people#living#in#informal#settlements#and#to#plan#better#interventions.#

At#the#same#time,#the#clear#benefits#of#the#co-productive#approach#are#not#accepted#by#

all# public# sector# actors.# Conflicting# rationalities# (Watson,# 2003)# and# the# general#

unwillingness# of# authorities# to# share# power# equally# (Papeleras,# Bagotlo#&#

Boonyabancha,#2012)#mean#that#co-production#can#typically#flourish#in#a#context#where#

the#public#sector#is#eager#to#experiment,#where#formal#solutions#have#failed#and#where#

the# long-term# relationship# and# a# track#record# of# successful# interventions# incentivises#

them#to#work#with#the#communities#(Mitlin#&#Satterthwaite,#2004).#This#worked#in#the#

favour#of#those#communities#who#were#able#to#establish#long-term#leadership,#with#the#

capacity# to# generate# critical-mass# support# or# to# navigate# intra-community# dynamics#

towards# the# expected# outcome# (Patel,# 2013;# Galuszka,# 2014)# while# not# always# being#

responsive#to#the#needs#of#all#community#members#(Rigon,#2014)#and#pre-determined#

by# the# existence# of# social# capital# (Voorberg# et# al.,# 2015).# In# more# weakly#organised#

communities#this#meant#that#a#key#role#was#played#by#NGOs#acting#as#intermediaries#

between# the# authorities# and# the# communities.# Hence,# in# such# contexts,# the# service#

delivery# arrangement# and# cooperation# format# was# also# dependent#on# the# wider#

positioning#of#an#NGO#within#the#local#political#and#development#aid#structures#and#so#

on#(Banks,#Hulme#&#Edwards,#2015).#Although,#subjected#to#those#complex#community#

and# political# dynamics# (Pieterse,# 2008),# as# pointed# out#by# Watson# (2014),#co-

production# made# it# possible# to# counteract# some# of# the# main# disadvantages# of# more#

established# forms# of# participatory# development,# including# the# risk# of# co-option#of#

independent#movements#and#issues#related#to#the#creation#of#artificial#representative#

structures#(Cooke#&#Kothari,#2001;#Cornwall,#2004;#Swyngedouw#2005;#Miraftab,#2009;#

Lemansky,# 2017).# Apart# from# the#scaling#up# approach# and# the# ‘showing# by# doing’#

strategy,# this# was# achieved#by# enabling# the# mainstreaming# of# approaches# of# civil#

societies#which#did#not#fit#into#existing#regulatory#frameworks.#Furthermore,#it#allowed#

control#of#the#development#process#to#move#beyond#mere#consultation#of#ready-made#

solutions#and#enabled#participation#in#a#diversity#of#activities#such#as#co-financing,#co-

management,# co-implementation# etc.# (Watson,# 2014;# Bovaird,# 2007).# This# was#often#

forged#through# a# more#conflict-ridden#process# as#opposed#to#a#classical#participatory#

governance#setting#(Albrechts,#2013;#Galuszka,#2019).##

Co-production/of/Governance/

Given# its# transformative# potential,# co-production# has# been# increasingly#

discussed# as# a# tool# for# stimulating# transitions# in# the# way#cities# are# governed.# The#

creation# of# multi-stakeholder# spaces# through# a#co-productive# approach# is#seen# as# a#

means# to# foster# a# new# policy# formulation# environment# (Frantzeskaki# &# Rok,# 2018),#

bringing#a#change#in#the#way#decisions#are#made#(Wyborn,#2015).#In#spite#of#its#deeply#

decentralised# character,# particularly# in# the# context# of# precarious# settlements,# the#

approach#resonated#beyond#small-scale#neighbourhood#or#district#level#scenarios.#Wide#

international#recognition#of#the#power#and#influence#of#networks#such#as#Slum/Shack#

Dwellers#International#(SDI)#and#the#Asian#Coalition#of#Housing#Rights#(ACHR)#(Herrle,#

Ley#&#Fokdal,#2015;#Watson#2014;#Bradlow,#2015a),#which#grew#from#the#bottom-up#

work# of# regional# affiliates,# reinforced# the# ambition# to# scale# up# and# mainstream# co-

productive# solutions# on# a#wider# city# scale# (Mitlin# &# Bartlett,# 2018).# An# increasing#

interest# in#the# literature# dealing# with#the# ways# in# which#the# informal# sector# affects#

urban#governance#(Sermiento#&#Tilly,#2018)#translated#into#an#analysis#of#the#impacts#

on# governance# of# co-production# in# the# South.# In# the# early# 2000s,# Joshi# and# Moore#

(2004)#identified#logistical#as#well#as#governance#drivers#of#the#approach,#with#the#latter#

being# primarily# directed# at# addressing# governance# capacities# of# the# state.# A# range# of#

authors# (Ackerman,# 2004;# Brandsen# &#Pestoff,# 2006;# Bovaird,# 2007)# reinforced# the#

distinction#between#different#levels#of#co-production,#while#underscoring#the#potential#

impact# of# citizens# on# policy# making# and# governance,# for# instance#through# co-

management# or# co-governance.# However,# most# of# these# interpretations,# mainly#

originating#from#the#Northern#context,#supported#the#view#that#the#process#needs#to#be#

driven#by#a#public#sector#proponent#and#should#include#regulatory#mechanisms#such#as#

institutionalisation# and# fixed# frameworks# ensuring# sustainability# of# the# arrangement.#

The# applicability# of# these# assumptions# was# questioned#in# the# case# of# the# governance#

transformation,#particularly#in#the#context#of#the#South.#In#particular,#the#positioning#of#

the#co-productive# process# as#external#to# community# groups#or#as# an# invited#space#of#

participation# (Cornwall,# 2004)#was# identified# as#bearing#a# similar# risk# as# the#

aforementioned# participatory# schemes# (Richardson# et# al.,# 2018)# or# as# a# mechanism#

having# limited# impact# on# the# policy# change# process# (Galuszka,# 2019).# As# previously#

mentioned,# the# creation# of# openings# for# communities# to# be# included# in# governance#

choices#rather#than#only#in#co-implementation#remains#crucial#here#if#the#people#are#not#

to# be#relegated# to# a# role# in# mere# service# delivery# (Mitlin# &#Bartlett,# 2018).# This#risk#

remains#real#as#governments#may#find#it#both#attractive#and#practical#to#“offload#service#

delivery#to#NGOs#and#community#groups#or#convince#local#residents#to#donate#volunteer#

labor#or#materials”#(Ackerman,#2012,#p.#102).#Access#to#governance,#except#with#regard#

to#the# scaling# up# of# the# solutions# of# urban# groups# and# movements# (Mitlin# &# Bartlett#

2018),#has#the#benefit#of#increasing#the#accountability#of#the#public#sector#(Ackerman,#

2004)#and# enabling# the# self-positioning# of# citizens# vis-à-vis#the# state.# Yet,# the# way# in#

which# this# access# is# achieved#appears# to# be# equally#crucial#in# the# context# of# urban#

change#in#the#South.#For#instance,#some#initial#reports#suggest#that#co-production#can#

have#equally#empowering#and#disempowering#effects#(Moretto#et#al.,#2018)#and#can#be#

contested#by# authorities# when# attempting# to# scale# up# (see# Chitekwe-Biti,# 2018).#This#

risk# resonates# at#higher# governance# levels.#In# fact,# even# when# co-production# is#

embedded#in#governance#systems,#but#not#steered#by#grassroots,#as#in#the#case#of#the#

land#delivery#system#in#Ghana,#the#arrangement#may#have#exclusionary#impacts#on#the#

general# population# (Akaateba,# Huang# &# Adumpo,# 2018).# For# these# reasons# the#

understanding#of#co-production#adapted#in#this#article#builds#on#the#central#assumption#

that#the#organised#communities,#rather#than#the#public#sector,#need#to#drive#the#process#

(Boonyabancha# &# Kerr,# 2018)# and# that# their# involvement# extends# beyond# one# single#

phase# of# a# project.# That# involvement# should# impact# on#the# design,# management# and#

execution#of#the#process.#Consequently,#the#analysed#approach#of#this#article#is#defined#

as#co-production#of#governance#which#is#an#“open-ended#process#that#enables#the#urban#

poor# to# continuously# affect,# review# and# update# policies# within# or# outside# of# formally#

recognised#bodies”#(Galuszka,#2019,#p.#150),#while#bearing#in#mind‚#that#the#impact#of#

organised# groups# of# citizens#on# governance#should# “mirror# their# own# protocols# and#

safeguard# principles# of# flexibility# and# collective# action”# (Galuszka,#2019,# p.# 150).# The#

methodological# considerations# for# inquiring# into#the# nature# of# such# a# process# are#

described#in#the#following#section.#

Analytical/Framework/and/Methods/

The#first#major#aim#of#this#article#is#to#trace#the#process#of#governance#transformation#

instigated# by# the# grassroots#through# a# co-productive# approach#with# the# intention# of#

scaling#it#up#as#the#main#solution#for#housing#the#poor#in#Metro#Manila.#Two#phases#of#

the#engagement#are#identified#and#analysed:#the#first#is#the#scaling#up#phase,#the#second#

is#the#governance/implementation#phase.#The#first#phase#is#described#in#terms#of#the#

variety#of#approaches#that#led#to#governance#change.#Its#outcomes#are#evaluated#based#

on#the#capacity#to#attain#the#goals#set#out#by#the#UP-ALL#and#the#achievement#of#new#

positioning#within#the#housing#governance#structures#in#Metro#Manila.#The#analysis#of#

the#second#phase#and#its#outcomes,#as#previously#stated,#is#conducted#beyond#a#project-

level# context.# Consequently,#rather# than# looking# at# specific# projects# realised# within#

Oplan# LIKAS# (which# have# taken# very# different# trajectories# based# on# specific# location,#

involved# intermediaries,# etc.),# the# article# is# concerned# with# the# overall# effects# on#

governance#and#the# actual# integration# of# the# co-productive# approach# of# the# People’s#

Plans#and#the#governance#factors#which#shaped#the#implementation#of#the#programme.#

The# second# major# aim#of# the# article# is# to# deepen# the# understanding# of# the#

process# of# co-production# in# the# context# of# the# South.# I# argue# that# a# discussion# of#the#

local# specifics# of# the# governance# process# is# necessary# to# grasp# the# reasons# for# the#

achievements#of#the#UP-ALL#in#the#scaling#up#phase#and#the#failures#of#the#arrangement#

in# the# governance/implementation# phase.# That# is,# this# study# goes# beyond# the#

assumptions#underpinning#the#successes#of#co-production#and#its#governance#effects#in#

the#European#and#North#American#contexts#and#seeks#to#understand#relations,#factors#of#

change#and#outcomes#of#governance#process#transformation#in#a#complex#governance#

system# that# is# decentralised# but# dependent# on# political# leaders,# and# that# incentivises#

bottom-up#work#but#also#undermines#and#co-opts#it#(Shatkin,#2007;#Hutchison,#2007).#

#In#particular,#it#reflects#on#three#key#issues#that#are#considered#to#distinguish#the#

co-productive#process#in#different#settings#and#intellectual#traditions#and#are#proposed#

as# a#guideline# for# analysing# the# governance# change# process# in# the# South# (Galuszka,#

2019).#These#are:##

-Positioning#of#the#institutionalisation#of#a#participatory#space#as#a#precondition#for#its

sustainability# (Ackerman,# 2004;# Joshi# &# Moore,# 2004)# versus# the# importance# of

maintaining#a#degree#of#independence#from#this#space#by#civil#society#(Galuszka,#2019).

Specifically,# this# issue# focuses# on# understanding# to# what# degree# the# civil# society# can

preserve#its#approaches#and#get#them#inscribed#into#law,#although#these#approaches#are

usually# based# on# a# completely# different# developmental# or# implementation# logic,# and

exist#because#legal#or#regulatory#frameworks#fail#(Watson,#2014).

-How# cooperation# and# conflict# are# treated# and# what# resources# are# used# to# reorder

power#relations#between#citizens#and#the#state.#This#includes#the#consideration#that#a

combination#of#the#two#is#typical#in#the#South#and#is#usually#required#for#civil#society#to

advance#with#its#agenda#(Watson,#2014;#Bradlow,#2015b;#Miltin#2018),#particularly#in

the#scaling#up#phase.##Simultaneously,#this#issue#poses#the#question#as#to#whether#the

declared#depoliticised#nature#of#some#sectorial-oriented#civil#society#movements#(Dikeç

&# Swyngedouw,# 2017)# and# their# declared# non-conflict# orientation,# suffice#to# affect

urban#governance#on#a#broader#metro#scale.

- Two#intertwined,# but# often#exclusionary,#objectives#of# civil# society#activism:#control

over#the#development#process#and#redistribution#of#resources#(Galuszka,#2019).#That#is,

this#issue#reflects#on#the#notion#of#co-production#as#a#manifestation#of#the#neo-liberal

tendency#to#push#service#delivery#responsibility#away#from#the#public#sector#(Miraftab,

2004)#and#on#the#assumption#that#the#redistribution#of#resources#may#be#linked#to#an#

increase#in#the#state’s#control#over#the#development#process#(Huchzermeyer,#2003).#I#

ask#whether#the#civil#society#can#merge#these#two#objectives#and#whether#co-produced#

governance#can#help#the#civil#society#to#achieve#it.##

The#proposed#analytical#device#can#reflect#on#the#hidden#dynamic#underlying#the#

civil# society# –# state# partnership# in# the#context# of# an#exclusionary# governance# setting.#

While#many#co-productive#approaches#across#the#global#South#are#documented#through#

the#prism#of#lower#project#costs#or#wider#service#delivery,#these#measures#may,#in#fact,#

not#be#the#dominant#factors#for#the#inclusion#or#exclusion#of#specific#solutions#or#groups#

from#a#particular#governance#setting.##The#review#of#the#contradictory#nature#of#the#co-

productive#process#reaches#to#those#‘non-technocratic’#motivators#of#urban#governance#

change,#and#aims#at#deepening#the#understanding#of#the#governance#processes#in#the#

South.##

This#article#draws#on#data#collected#during#fieldwork#conducted#in#Metro#Manila#

between# November# 2017# and# March# 2018,# including# interviews,# site# visits# and# the#

analysis#of#quantitative#and#spatial#data#sourced#from#the#local#shelter#agencies#and#civil#

society#organisations.#Overall,#37#in-depth,#semi-structured#interviews#were#conducted#

(including# 7# in# a# group# setting).# The# selection# criteria# for# the# interviews# included#

engagement# in# the# formulation# and/or# implementation# of# the# Oplan# LIKAS.#

Additionally,# it# involved# screening# for# representatives# of# different# sectors# and#

organisations.#These#included#leaders#of#the#UP-ALL#involved#in#the#establishment#and#

implementation#of#the#Oplan#LIKAS#as#well#as##partner#community#organisations#and#

NGOs1.# Additionally,# interviews# were# undertaken#with# a# parallel# urban# poor# bloc#

organised#around#the#Institute#for#Popular#Democracy/Kilos#Maralita#which#benefited#

from#a#big#proportion#of#the#funding#delivered#for#in-city#resettlement.##

As#such,#the#research#included#interviews#with#the#two#main#urban#poor#blocs#in#

Metro#Manila#which#engaged#in#co-productive#action:#the#UP-ALL#-#largely#composed#of#

apolitical#or#broadly#pro-democratic#(liberal)#groups#and#Kilos#Maralita#-#linked#to#the#

left#political#block.#The#remaining#major#network#–#Kadamay#–#in#principle#rejects#the#

co-productive#approach#and#orientates#itself#towards#more#radical#measures#including#

1 Such as: TRICOR members: Community Organisers Multiversity, Urban Poor Associates; KOSMA (Coalition

of People’s Organizations in Manila); CMP Congress members (former representatives of the Foundation for

the Development of the Urban Poor), Homeless People’s Federation Philippines, DAMPA (Damayan ng

Maralitang Pilipinong Api), TAO Pilipinas, Partnership of Philippine Support Service Agencies.

housing#occupation#and#land# invasions2.#Interviews#were#also#conducted#with#former#

and# current# representatives# of# the# public# sector# holding# managerial# and# senior#

bureaucratic#positions#in#the#main#implementing#agencies:#the#Department#of#Interior#

and# Local# Government# (DILG),# the# Social# Finance# Housing# Corporation# (SHFC),# the#

National#Housing#Authority#(NHA),#the#Presidential#Commission#for#the#Urban#Poor,#as#

well# as# representatives# of# the# Local# Government# Units,# mainly# at#the# level# of# Local#

Housing# Boards.# Interviews# were# also# conducted# with# community# members# on# the#

'implementing/receiving’#end#in#three#communities#where#resettlement#projects#were#

either#finalised#or#near#completion,#as#well#as#in#two#communities#in#the#pre-relocation#

stage.##

Inclusive/ Foundations/ and/ Exclusive/ Practices/ in/ Housing/ Governance/ in/ Metro/

Manila/

The#urban#poor#movement#has#been#intensively#organised#in#Metro#Manila#since#

the#1970s.#It#was#originally#composed#of#very#diverse#communities#that#were#brought#

together# by# a# unifying# anti-eviction# agenda#and# opposition# to# the# repressive# Marcos#

regime.# During#this# period# the# groups# had# relatively# few#possibilities# for#engaging#in#

governance# matters# through# official#channels# and# tried# to# exercise# their# influence#

through#politicised#and#confrontational#means#(Shatkin,#2002).#The#change#in#political#

rule#in#the#Philippines#in#1986#and#the#adoption#of#in-depth#decentralisation#reforms#

significantly#altered#the#nature#of#the#movement#and#the#scope#of#its#activities#(Karaos,#

2006).#Its#function#at#that#time#was#to#benefit#from#enabling#laws,#particularly#the#Local#

Government# Code# of#1991# and# the# Urban# and# Development# Housing# Act# (UDHA)# of#

1992,#which#devolved#many#of#the#centralised# powers# to# the# local# government# units.#

The# essence#of# these# new# laws#was# to# involve# the# representatives# of# people’s#

organisations,# community# groups# and# NGOs# in# the# development# process# by# changing#

their# position# from#beneficiaries# to# key# stakeholders# in#the# settlement# upgrading#

process.# These# aims# were# manifested# in# the# National# Shelter# Programme,# which#was#

linked#to#the#decentralisation#of#housing#production#and#legitimised#the#state#position#

as# an# enabler# of# housing# rather# than# its# provider#(Ballesteros,# 2002).# Under# these#

2 This article employs the term ‘urban poor movement/bloc’ to refer to the two major fractions which support

engagement in co-productive action and refrain from radical contestation measures.

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conditions,# numerous# urban# poor# coalitions# flourished# and# engaged# actively# in# local#

urban#development#matters.#

#However,# these# progressive# foundations# were# not# smoothly# translated# into#

inclusive#development#practice,#with#many#of#the#local#elites#from#both#the#government#

and#the#private#sector#acting#as#a#stumbling#block#in#the#implementation#of#pro-poor#

policies#(Shatkin,#2007).#The#roots#of#this#dichotomy,#which#is#also#linked#to#practical#

reasons# such# as# competition# for# land# and# profit,# can# be# attributed# to#the# “ideological#

currents# operating# through# local# real-estate# markets”# (Garrido,# 2013,# p.#167).# The#

preference#of#elite#consumers#for#exclusive#spaces#and#the#related#routine#of#planning#

practice#remained#in#contrast#to#such#policies#as#securing#in-city#land#for#low-income#

populations# and#the# development# of# social# housing.# In# practice,# this#kind# of# “off-the-

scene”# resistance# of# power# holders# was# reinforced# by#the# merging# of# political# and#

economic#elites#(Kleibert,#2018)#and#manifested#itself#in#a#variety#of#ways,#ranging#from#

negligent#implementation#of#progressive#policies#to#the#difficulty#of#transforming#public#

institutions#(Constantino-David,#2004).#Likewise,#even#though#innovative#participatory#

mechanisms#had#been#established,#the#outputs#of#these#spaces#still#largely#depended#on#

the# willingness# of# top# decision# makers.# In# her# analysis# of# networked# governance#

practices#in#two#cities#in#Metro#Manila,#Porio#(2012)#documents#that#decentralisation#

may#have#transformed#the#traditional#bureaucratic#structures#but#at#the#same#time#was#

used#by#mayors#to#reinforce#their#control#over#the#development#process.#The#range#of#

strategies#involved#not#only#the#creation#of#alliances#and#networks#supportive#of#their#

agenda,# but# also# actions# that#are# conventionally# considered# to# support# co-production#

(Joshie#&#Moore,#2004),#namely#the#institutionalisation#of#regulatory#frameworks#and#

practices.# This#finding# is# confirmed# from# the# point# of# view# of# community-based#

organisations.#When#building#relationships#with#a#multitude#of#‘formal’#actors,#including#

donors#and#government#officials,#these#actors#tend#to#attempt#to#maintain#control#of#the#

development#process#rather#than#share#it#equally#(Papeleras#et#al.,#2012).##

The# issue# also# relates# to# the# aspect# of# financing.# The# openings# offered# by# the#

political# transformation# did# not# result# in# increased#access# to# state# resources# and#

“protection#as#a#justifiable#right”#but#rather#in#the#creation#of#spaces#for#bargaining#for#

access# to# services# and# resources#(Hutchison,# 2007;# Shatkin,# 2002).# As# much# as#

decentralisation# has# resulted# in# the# emergence# of# an# active# civil# society# to# date,# the#

budget# for# housing#has# remained# marginal# for# decades.# In# the# years# 2000–2007,# the#

Philippines#invested#the#least#money#on#average#on#low-income#housing#compared#with#

other# South-East# Asian# countries# (Habito,# 2009).# Unsurprisingly,# the# issue# of#

substandard# housing# conditions# is# nowhere# near# being# resolved.# Out# of#the#

approximately#13#million#people#living#in#Metro#Manila,#between#1.3#and#3#million#are#

estimated#to#live#in#informal#settlements#(World#Bank,#2016).#

This#paradoxical#positioning# of#the# urban#poor#and#inclusive#policies#has#been#

reflected# in# the# local,# public# sector-led# housing# and# tenure-focused# programmes.# A#

study#of#the#overall#number#of#assisted#informal#settler#families#from#Metro#Manila#in#

the#last#decade#reveals#that#the#progressive#solutions#based#on#co-production#principles#

benefited#only# a# small# number# of# people# in# comparison# with# top-down# resettlement#

schemes# delivered# by# developers.# For# example,# the# Community# Mortgage# Program,#

which#positions#communities#in#the#centre#of#the#land#formalisation#process,#benefited#

26,480# households# between# 2005# and# 2011.# From# 2005# to# 2010,# the# resettlement#

programme# delivered# 107,079# housing# units# (Galuszka,# 2014).# Consequently,# the#

overwhelming# majority# of# the# low-income# housing# produced# in# Metro# Manila# and#

surrounding#area#is#linked#to#the#most#contested#format#of#development,#namely,#off-

city#relocation,#which#means#people#receive#“little#boxes#on#tiny#resettlement#plots#in#a#

vast#grid#development#designed#by#NHA3#engineers#and#built#expensively#by#contractor”#

(Papeleras,#et#al.,#2012,#p.#474).#

The/Scaling/Up/Phase:/the/UP-ALL/and/the/10-Point/Covenant/

Given# the# limited# reach# of# innovative# solutions# and# the#perpetual# housing#

shortage,#efforts#to#find#solutions#towards#a#wider#inclusion#of#the#urban#poor#in#the#

housing# sector# continued.# In# response# to#the#forced#relocations#happening# around#

Metro#Manila#(Mabilin,#2014),#many#of#these#activities#were#in#the#past#steered#by#anti-

eviction# groups.# Even# before#1986,# there# were# strong# movements# that# utilised#

networking#mechanisms#with#the#intent#to#challenge#official#policies.#One#of#the#largest#

networks#of#this#time,#the#Zone#One#Tondo#Organisation#(and#its#umbrella#organisation#-#

Ungayan),# emerged# as# a# relatively# strong# grouping# utilising# politicised# and#

confrontational# tactics# and# organised# around# an# anti-eviction# agenda.# The# group#

3 NHA: The National Housing Authority is the main housing agency mandated to provide housing for relocated

families in the Philippines.

succeeded# in#negotiating#with# the# authorities# and# took# part# in# the# World# Bank-

supported# upgrading# project# in# the# Tondo# district# of#Manila,# the# first# major# project#

promoting#self-help#and#community#engagement#in#informal#settlement#upgrading.#The#

outreach#of#these#early#organisational#efforts#was#short-lived;#in#the#early#1980s#CBOs#

and# NGOs# started# falling# out#with# each# other# over#political# stances# (Shatkin,# 2002).#

While#decentralisation#reform,#which#continued#beyond#1986,#supported#the#growth#of#

various# community-based# organisations,# it# also# resulted# in# the# demobilisation# of# the#

urban#poor#movement#(Shatkin,#2002).#During#the#following#decades,#even#the#groups#

who# were# most# successful# in# negotiating# with#the# government# did# not# emerge# as# a#

wider#movement#advocating#land#reform.#This#consequence#was#linked#to#the#specifics#

of# the# governance# structures,# which# enabled#the# urban# poor# to# bargain#for# access# to#

services# while# subjecting# themselves#to#the#patronage# of# powerful# figures#and# to# the#

political#process#(Hutchison,#2007).#One#example#of#this#is#the#arbitrary#instrument#of#

the# presidential# proclamation,# which# gives# a# president# the# right# to# allocate# land# to# a#

specific#group#by#virtue#of#an#executive#order.#Although#it#supported#the#development#of#

many# informal# settlements# and# helped# to# stop# forced# evictions,# it# was# also# used# to#

dismantle#a#wider#coalition#focused#on#comprehensive#urban#land#reform.#It#shifted#the#

focus#of#grassroots#organisations#to#the#immediate#needs#of#the#people#in#a#territorially#

circumscribed#manner#(Karaos,#2006).#

Aside#from#these#groupings#that#primarily#centred#on#advocacy,#court#action#or#

community# work# in# a# specific# location,# numerous# community-based# organisations#

focused#on# co-production# within# or# outside# of# the# official# governmental# schemes.# A#

number# of# governmental# programmes,# such# as#the# Community# Mortgage# Program# or#

the#incremental#modality#of#the#Resettlement#Program,#incentivised#this#approach#and#

mobilised# a# large# number# of# communities#across# Metro# Manila# to# engage# in# co-

production.# The# approach# was#also# steered# outside# of# the#established#regulatory#

frameworks#of#the#key#shelter#agencies.#On#a#small#scale,#this#engagement#involved,#for#

example,#making#local#plans#and#facilitating#the#incremental#construction#of#housing#by#

people# with# materials# and# the#technical# guidance# of# local# government# units# (see#

BASECO#case#where#multiple#organisations#engaged#in#co-productive#schemes#towards#

settlement# upgrading)# (Galuszka,# 2014).# On# a# large# scale,# federations# engaged# in#

independent# initiatives# which# included# various# power-building#activities#through#the#

generation#of#their#own#resources,#knowledge#and#planning#routine.#One#example#of#a#

people’s#organisation#is#the#Homeless#People’s#Federation#Philippines#(HPFPH),#which#

was#formed#in#1998.#In#its#early#phase,#this#federation#developed#savings#schemes#and#

networked#the#urban#poor#in#Metro#Manila#(Yu#&#Karaos,#2004),#and#later#moved#on#to#

mapping# activities.# The# success# of# this#approach# was# documented# in# 2015# in#

Muntinlupa#City#where#the#informal#settlement#mapping#was#carried#out.#This#case#was#

supported#by#the#authorities#and#became#a#source#of#information#for#the#development#

of#local#upgrading#and#resettlement#strategies.#Simultaneously,#engagement#in#regional#

activities# through# large# international# networks#(Karaos# &#Porio,# 2015)# enabled# the#

group#to#strengthen#its#position#as#a#reliable#partner#of#both#development#aid#agencies#

and#academics#and#therefore#able#to#access#funding#opportunities.##

It#can#be#argued#that#the#combination#of#movements#utilising#different#strategies#was#

what#provided#the#opportunity#for#a#significant#reordering#of#the#existing#civil#society–

public#sector#relationship.#The#major#stepping#stone#was#the#establishment#in#2005#of#

the#nationwide#umbrella#organisation#UP-ALL.#Its#launch#brought#together#120#people’s#

organisation# leaders,# representing# about# 600# organisations# from# around# the# country#

(Karaos#&#Porio,#2015).#The#UP-ALL#also#involved#NGO#representatives,#including#the#

‘Partnership# of# Philippine# Support# Service# Agencies’# network,# which# had# actively#

supported# the# community-based# organisations# in# Metro# Manila,# since# 1988.# Many# of#

these# organisations# specialised# in# different# issues,# such# as# networking#and#co-

production,# and# some# included# in# their# portfolio#protest# means# and# court# action4.#

Building# on# their#different# capacities,# the# founding# members# agreed# on# a# 14-point#

agenda#that#steered#the#advocacy#efforts#of#the#alliance.#Overall,#although#part#of#the#

group#incorporated#activities#rarely#considered#to#be#part#of#a#co-productive#approach,#

such# as# court# action,# in# principal# the# groups# agreed# to# a#non-violent# orientation# and#

practised# building# synergies# with# government# through# engaging# in# co-productive#

solutions# on# the# ground.# Similarly,# most# of# the# advocacy# work,# or# court# action,# was#

directed# towards# the# increased# responsibility# of# the# people# for#service# delivery# and#

programme#design,#thereby#strengthening#their#position#as#co-producers#of#housing.##

As#reported#by#Karaos#and#Porio#(2015),#in#the#years#following#its#establishment,#

the# UP-ALL# achieved# significant# successes# mainly# in# terms# of# reinforcing# the# Social#

4!For example, the aforementioned HPFPH follows the logic of the SDI and refrains from engaging in rallies and

manifestations. Another strong bloc in the UP-ALL, the groups under TRICOR remains active in this field,

while in parallel it is engaged in various on-the-ground co-productive projects with the public sector.###

Finance# Housing# Corporation# (the# agency# responsible# for#delivering#the# Community#

Mortgage#Program)#and#defining#the#rules#and#regulations#surrounding#the#titling#and#

upgrading#of#informal#settlements#on#government-owned#lands.##

However,#the#landmark#opportunity#to#further#the#agenda#of#the#alliance#arrived#

in#the#run-up#to#the#presidential#elections#in#2010,#when#the#civil#society#explored#the#

openness#of#the#candidates#to#their#agenda.#During#this#time,#“the#urban#poor#movement#

made#a#deal#with#then-candidate#Aquino,#so#the#liberal#party#(…)#wrote#an#agreement#

with#the#Urban#Poor#Alliance#that#there#shall#be#shift#of#the#strategy#from#off-city#to#in-

city#relocation”#(civil#society,#27.12.2018)5.#The#massive#alliance#could#not#be#ignored#

by# the# politicians# because# it# represented# a# significant# voting# base,# which#could# make#

itself# visible# through# rallies# and# ‘street-level’# support# for# a# specific# candidate.#

Consequently,# during#the# final# run-up#to#the#elections,# Aquino# entered# into# an#

agreement#with#the#UP-ALL,#namely#a#10-point#covenant#on#the#demands#of#the#urban#

poor#sector.##

Establishment/of/the/Oplan/LIKAS/

Although#the# signing#of#the# 10-point# covenant#was#the# essential#driver#for#the#

establishment#of#the#Oplan#LIKAS#programme,#the#urban#poor#were#effectively#able#to#

steer#their#activities#through#several#external#factors.#Most#importantly,#the#engagement#

was#also#motivated#by#a#Supreme#Court#mandamus#from#the#year#2008#that#ordered#the#

clean-up#of#Manila#Bay#and#waterways#in#urban#areas#within#a#three-metre#zone.#The#

order# indicated# the# relocation# of# a# large# number# of# informal# settlers# living# along#

waterways.#Around#the#same#time,#in#2009,#the#Philippines#was#struck#by#a#number#of#

devastating#typhoons,#including#Typhoon#Ondoy.#Along#with#the#advocacy#bestowed#by#

the#10-point#covenant,#the#civil#society#“groups#realized#that#as#a#strategy#we#can#use#

what# happened# during# Ondoy# to# better# convince# the# government.# So# then# we#

constructed# the# lobbying# statement:# government# you# spent# now,# before# the# disaster#

happens”#(civil#society/public#sector,#24-11-2017)#and#“for#government#that#was#logical#

move,#logical#thinking#to#transfer#these#people#away#from#this#waterways”#(civil#society,#

5!The interviewees are referred to based on the sectors they were involved in: ether public sector in general

(including government or key shelter agency) or civil society (including People’s Organisations) as well as civil

society/ public sector for those who were engaged in both sectors at various stages of the Oplan LIKAS

programme.

08-12-2017a).# The# civil# society#effectively#gained# more# leverage# to# push# for# its# own

approach,#and#the#mandamus,#which#could#have#posed#a#major#threat#of#uncontrolled

evictions,#became#an#opportunity#for#better#housing.#Consequently,#at#the#beginning#of

President# Aquino’s# term,# the# Oplan# LIKAS# programme# began# to# be# formulated.# The

process#involved#a#series#of#convergence#meetings#and#the#formulation#of#the#Informal

Settler#Families#National#Technical#Working#Group,#which#consisted#of#representatives

of#CSOs,#local#authorities#and#13#public#sector#agencies#involved#in#the#programme#in

various#capacities.#The#work#also#benefited#from#the#technical#assistance#of#the#World

Bank.

Although# the# realisation# of# the# 10-point# covenant# was# difficult# from# the# start#

(Gerald,#2011),#its#process#and#the#resources#devoted#to#the#programme#suggests#that#it#

went# beyond# a# classical# clientelist# relationship# and,# as# Hutchison#(2007)#puts# it,# the#

disallowed# political# participation# of# the# urban# poor.# Therefore,#it# enabled# true# co-

production# of# policy# solutions# and# access# to# governance,# which# contrasts# with# some#

participatory# spaces# established# by# power# holders# in# Metro# Manila# only# to# reinforce#

their#political#influence#(Porio,#2012).#Similarly,#in#contrast#to#the#logic#of#the#populist#

appeal#and#the#performance#of#sincerity#(Garrido,#2017),#the#deal#between#Aquino#and#

the#UP-ALL#created#a#channel#for#the#realisation#of#some#of#the#key#demands#of#the#civil#

society.#This# achievement# can# be# captured# within# the# three# dimensions# of# the# Oplan#

LIKAS#programme:#

Financial'Base/

In# accordance# with# points#4# (housing# budget)# and# 8# (post-Ondoy# rehabilitation#

programme)#of#the#covenant,#the#programme#responded#to#the#unrelenting#advocacy#of#

the# urban# poor# for# an#increase# in# the# budget# for# low-income# housing.# In# November#

2011,#P50#billion#(approximately#US$#1.15#billion)#was#allocated#for#the#period##2011–

2016#to#house#104,000#ISFs#(later#increased#to#around#120,000#families)#(World#Bank,#

2016).# The# reserved# budget# was# the# most# significant# financial# input# into# the# social#

housing#sector#in#the#last#decade#(HUDCC,#2017)#to#be#utilised#by#settlers#living#in#Metro#

Manila#regardless#of#their#affiliation#with#a#specific#political#bloc.##

Integration' of' the' Urban' Poor's' Advocacy' Points' into'the'Planning' of' the'

Programme'(in-city'relocation'and'People’s'Plans)//

From# the# start,# the# civil# society# was# involved# in# the# formulation# of# the# programme#

through#the#work#of#the#ISF-National#Technical#Working#Group.#The#initial#debates#and#

documents#shaped#by#the#Working#Group#supported#two#key#agenda#points#of#the#civil#

society:# the# in-city# relocation# and#the#adaptation# of# the# People’s# Plans.# The# former#

represented#the#continuous#struggle#of#urban#poor#communities#to#avoid#relocation#to#

distant#off-city#locations,#which#typically#resulted#in#unemployment#and#related#issues.#

The#latter#legitimised#the#co-production#of#multi-storey#housing#between#the#state#and#

the#urban#poor.#Specifically,#it#assumed#the#alternative#shelter#planning#approach#that#

involves# ISF# community# members# in# the# process# of# creating,# drafting# and# generating#

their# plan# for# housing# and# community# development.# From# forming# their# community#

associations,#building#their#capacities,#designing#their#housing#and#community,#as#well#

as#negotiating#with#landowners#and#developers,#to#managing#and#maintaining#their#own#

housing#and#community#(Patiño,#2016,#p.#29).##

Overall#the#approach#was#reflected#in#relevant#documentation#such#as#the#Memorandum#

Circular#resulting#from#the#works#of#ISF#-#National#Technical#Working#Group#as#well#as#

in#a# number#of# new#programmes#established# at#a# later#stage,#including:# High#Density#

Housing#of#the#SHFC#and#the#Micro-Medium-Rise#Building#modality# of# the# DILG.# This#

approach#is# directly# related# to#point# 10# (participation# and# stakeholdership)# and#

indirectly#to#point#2#(provide#support#for#area#upgrading#and#in-city#resettlement)#of#

the#covenant.##

Embedding'the'Civil'Society'into'Key'Shelter'Agencies/

The# civil# society# sector# influenced# the# selection# of# the# staff# responsible# for# the#

implementation# of# the# programme# and# its# institutional# setup.# Consequently,#the#

programme#was#settled#within#the#DILG.#As#noted#by#one#of#the#civil#society#leaders:#

“Most# of# our# networks# were# there,# they# were# hired# because# we# really# pushed”# and#

“during#that#time#we#had#a#very#good#Secretary#of#Local#Government,#Jessie#Robredo”#

(civil#society,#08.12.2017b)#who#previously#served#as#the#mayor#of#Naga#City#and#was#

known#for#applying#participatory#governance#measures.#Similarly,#in#accordance#with#

the# preferences# of# the# CSOs,# the# programme# was# embedded# in# the# Social# Housing#

Finance#Corporation,#which#was#chaired#by#the#representative#of#the#non-governmental#

sector,#Ana#Oliveros.#Consequently,#two#out#of#the#three#main#agencies#(Figure#1),#which#

were#about# to# receive# money# for# the# implementation# of# the# programme,# were# truly#

influenced#by# the# CSOs.# Only# the# NHA,# traditionally# responsible# for# the# resettlement#

programme,#was#beyond#this#influence.#This#indicated#the#partial#delivery#of#point#9#of#

the#covenant#(the#appointments).##

Figure/1./Simplified#time#frame#of#the#Oplan#LIKAS#programme.#

Governance/Implementation/ Phase:/ Top-Bureaucratic/ and/ Community-Level/

Competition/Over/the/Programme’s/Approach/

With#a#number#of#tangible#and#unprecedented#achievements#at#hand,#Oplan#LIKAS#was#

“a#golden#opportunity,#was#supposed#to#be#a#golden#opportunity#to#push#for#people’s#

driven# shelter# because# we# had# the# funds”# (civil# society/public# sector,# 01.12.2017).#

However,# unlike# in# the# empowerment# phase# in# which#CSOs# acted# as# an# extraneous#

power,# the# programme# implementation# period# posed# a# set# of# completely# new#

challenges# that# signalled# the# volatility# of# its# previous# achievements.# Two# clear# blocs#

started#to#emerge#in#the#initial#stage#of#the#programme.#The#first#one,#supportive#of#the#

approaches#of#the#urban#poor,#centred#on#two#main#implementing#agencies:#the#DILG#

and#the#SHFC.#The#second#one,#in#favour#of#classical#top-down#housing#measures,#was#

centred# on#the# NHA.# The# final# figures# of# the# programme# (Table# 1)#showed#that# only#

around#25%#of#the#fund#went#to#the#progressive#bloc.#Although#the#scale#of#this#shift#

became#obvious#only#at#the#end#of#the#programme,#its#initial#years#already#suggested#

that#the#civil#society#agenda#was#becoming#undermined,#specifically#when#the#involved#

stakeholders#realised#that#the#first#P10#billion#would#be#allocated#exclusively#to#the#NHA#

because#“the#release#of#10#million#to#NHA#is#very,#very#inconsistent#with#the#spirit#or#

intention# of# (…)# the# Joint# Memorandum# Circular# because# the# NHA# is# an# agency# that#

builds#relocation#sites#mostly#off-city,#on#distant#relocation#sites”#(civil#society,#27-12-

2017).#This#poses#the#question:#How#was#such#an#obvious#diversion#from#the#essence#of#

the#initial#agreements#possible#so#early#in#the#process?#

Table/1.#Breakdown#of#the#50#billion#fund,#source:#DILG#(2017,#2018)#

AGENCY

TARGET UNITS/

UTILISATION OF THE

FUND

NUMBER OF

HOUSING UNITS

DELIVERED

BREAKDOWN

OF FUNDING

(in PhP)

National

Housing

Authority

Target: 101,210

Completed: 85,053

Occupied: 63,022

Off-city: 75,215

In-city: 9,838

32,21 billion

64,42%

Social Housing

Finance

Corporation

Target: 19,6586

Completed: 3729

Occupied: 730

Off-city: 6 projects

Near city: 9 project

In-city: 12 projects

9,484 billion

18,97%

6!The#number#of#target#units#has#changed#during#the#Oplan#LIKAS#process.#The#numbers#indicated#here#

are#based#on#the#data#of#the#DILG#(2017#and#2018).#The#overall#target#of#the#NHA#and#SHFC#is#set#here#at#

120868#units.###

Department of

Interior and

Local

Government

-Fund allocation of P1,05 billion

to LGUs for development of

2248 housing units within

People’s Plans driven projects.

Part of the funding to be utilised

by the SHFC for the delivery of

718 housing units.

-Provision of interim shelter

fund P 180,000 for 52734 ISFs.

Target: 2248

Accomplished units: 434

Off-city: 1 project

In-city: 7 projects

2,489 billion

4,98%

Department of

Social Welfare

and

Development

One project: Provision of

housing to ISFs of Estero de

San Miguel

In city: 1 project

531 million

1,06%

Presidential

Commission

for the Urban

Poor

Social preparation activities

40 million

0,08%

Unallocated

5,243 billion

10,49%

The#first#major#issue#lay#within#the#implementation#and#institutional#logic#of#the#

programme#that#countered#its#progressive#spirit.#On#one#hand,#the#civil#society#agenda,#

including#in-city#resettlement#and#the#People’s#Plans,#was#positioned#as#a#set#of#guiding#

principles#for#the#implementation#of#the#programme.#On#the#other#hand,#Oplan#LIKAS#

was#a#resettlement#programme,#and#the#legal#framework,#existing#mandates#of#the#key#

shelter# agencies#and# professional# routine#positioned# the# NHA#as# their# ‘natural’#

proponent.#The#duality#of#the#approaches#translated#into#an#intense#competition#among#

the# implementing# agencies,# and# epitomises# Lefebvre’s# (1974)# argument# that# space# is#

the#stake#of#politics.#This#competition#resonated#along#different#levels#of#governance.#At#

the#level#of#top#decision#makers,#it#involved#formal#and#informal#lobbying#in#favour#of#

their# preferred# approaches# and,# unsurprisingly,# was# motivated# by# political# and#

economic# interests.# The# issue# was# manifested# in# the# works# of# the# National# Technical#

Working# Group#on# the# ISFs,# the# outputs#of# which#were# contested# by# some# public#

agencies.# The# draft# documentation# reinforcing# the#in-city# resettlement# and# People’s#

Plans#was#approved#by#the#majority#of#housing#agencies#and#the#civil#society#in#2013.#

Nevertheless,# the# last# signature# on# the# document# was# signed# towards# the# end# of# the#

programme.#“The#HUDCC#(Housing#and#Urban#Development#Council)#was#the#last#one#to#

sign# this# and# as# a# condition# to# sign# they# put# provision# here# that# the# money# given# to#

them7#prior#to#signing#of#Circular#will#not#be#covered#by#the#circular”#(government,#19-

02-2018).#That#is,#a#large#portion#of#the#money#used#for#large,#distant,#off-city#relocation

sites# in# the# first# years# of# the# programme# by# the# NHA#could# not# be# questioned# as# a

misuse#of#the#fund.#One#of#the#motivating#factors#for#the#HUDCC#to#challenge#the#signing

of#the#programme’s#documentation#was#the#political#positioning#of#the#agency.#At#the

time,# it# was# chaired# by# the# leader# of# the# political# opposition,# vice# president# Jejomar

Binay,#who#was#the#running#mate#of#an#unsuccessful#candidate#in#the#2010#presidential

elections,#and#one#of#the#civil#society#representatives#expressed#the#following#view:#“I

think#that#the#HUDCC#as#chaired#by#Binay,#vice-president#(…)#to#the#National#Technical

Working#Group#is#an# unnecessary#aberration# from#the#president,#for#they# could#have

implemented#the#whole#thing#on#their#own”#(civil#society,#27-12-2017).#In#fact,#although

in#2010#vice-president#Binay#publicly#urged#for#a#change# to#the#existing#resettlement

modalities,# saying,#“There# have# been# numerous# complaints# on# the# manner# by# which

government# is# handling# the# resettlement# of# informal# settlers.# It# has# proportionately

increased# the# concern# of# stakeholders# over# the# capacity# of# NHA# and# other# housing

agencies#to#effectively#implement#plans#and#programs#of#resettlement”#(HUDCC,#2010),

the# refusal# to# sign# the# Joint# Memorandum# Circular# in# 2013# was# a# clear# statement

against#the#transformation#of#the#resettlement#approach.

The#second#issue#is#that#the#support#given#to#off-city#resettlement#was#related#to#

the# practical# need# of# the# NHA# to# fulfil# pre-existing# contracts# with# their# partner#

developers,#even#though#the#format#and#location#of#the#housing#sharply#contradicted#the#

principles#of#the#in-city#relocation#and#People’s#Plans.#The#financial#mechanism,#which,#

conveniently# for# the# NHA,# assumed# the# disbursement# of# money# in# yearly# 10# million#

instalments,# further# supported# the# agency# in# promoting# its#solutions.# Predicting# how#

challenging# cooperation# with# the# NHA# would# be,# the# CSOs#were# already#pushing#to#

embed# the# programme# into#the# DILG# prior# to# 2011.# However,# this# move# was#

insufficient,# and# the# resistance# of# the# NHA# and# the# HUDCC# counterbalanced# the#

7#National#Housing#Authority#

influence#of#CSOs#on#the#other#implementing#agencies.#This#suggests#that#direct#access#

to#governance#space,#in#which#civil#society#could,#formally#or#informally,#try#to#affect#the#

planning#process,#did#not#automatically#mean#that#the#civil#society#had#the#capacity#to#

navigate# the# new# bureaucratic# struggles#(Galuszka,# 2019)# guided# by# a# completely#

different#set#of#developmental#logic#(Watson,#2003).#

Simultaneously,#the#competition#between#the#progressive#and#the#conventional#

approaches#trickled#down#to#ground#level,#where#local#groups#began#to#be#approached#

by#external#mobilizers#who#tried#to#obtain#their#support#for#one#of#the#modalities#of#the#

programme.#Knowing#that#a#majority#of#the#funding#would#be#initially#consumed#by#the#

NHA,#some#urban#poor#groups#tried#to#approach#the#agency#and#negotiate#for#an#in-city#

option,#an#effort#that#turned#out#to#be#unsuccessful#at#that#stage.#Consequently,#the#civil#

society#continued#its#advocacy#to#position#the#SHFC#as#the#recipient#of#a#portion#of#the#

P50#billion#fund.#This#goal#was#achieved#only#in#2013#when#the#High#Density#Housing#

programme# was# established# (Figure# 1).# This# experience# revealed# a# broad# trend# of#

communities#being# dragged# between# People’s# Plans# and# off-city# relocations.# The# civil#

society#attributed#the#large#number#of#communities#convinced#to#move#to#off-city#sites#

as#an#effect#of#the#conscious#campaigning#of#the#NHA#and#some#of#the#local#governments#

against#the#People’s# Plans.# These#plans#were# presented# as# being# long# and# uncertain,#

which#narrowed#down#to#a#message#that#“if#you#don’t#take#NHA#housing#now#you#will#be#

demolished# and# evicted# anyway# and# you# might# find# yourself# without# a# housing# unit#

assigned# to# yourself”# (civil# society,# 27-12-2017).# Ironically,# in# the# public# domain,# the#

rushed# relocation# to# off-city# sites# was# also# backed# up# by# the# disaster# risk# reduction#

logic,#which# made# local# governments# liable# for# cleaning# a# three-metre#area# along#the#

waterways.# Thus,# the# local# authorities# mobilised#to# remove# the# settlers# as# fast# as#

possible,# and# the# NHA# provided# this# opportunity.# In# this# way,# the# original# lobbying#

statements# of# the# civil# society,# which#helped# it# to# secure#the# P50# billion# fund,# were#

positioned#against#the#People’s#Plans#approach.##

Admittedly,# these# plans# were# not# present# and# the# model# of# development# was#

uncertain#in#the#early#stage#of#the#programme,#since:#“there#is#a#lot#of#money,#you#have#

DILG,#NHA,# SHFC#so#you# do#not#know# who#really#is# the#main#agency# who#coordinate#

who# assist,# who# evaluates,# how# this# fund# was# being# used# and# utilised”# (People’s#

Organisation,# 07-12-2017).# Most# of#the# informal# communities# lacked# strong#

organisation#and#agency#to#engage#with#it,#which#meant#“they#are#left#at#the#mercy#of#

default#option,#which#is#off-city#resettlement”#(public#sector/civil#society#02.03.2018).#

Consequently,#there#were#reports#of#communities#mobilised#to#engage#in#the#People’s#

Planning#process#shifting#position#and#opting#for#the#cheaper#and#more#rapid#off-city#

solution#proposed#by#the#NHA.#However,#although#the#approach#had#the#true#advantage#

of#being#fast#and#inexpensive#for#the#beneficiaries,#the#aforementioned# socio-political#

factors#can# be#considered# as#equal,#if#not#more#important,#to#the# way#the# P50#billion#

fund#was#utilised.#These#factors#emerge#as#central#points#of#debate#when#considering#

the#quality#of#the#delivered#sites#and#the#socio-economic#effects#of#off-city#resettlement#

(as#illustrated#by#an#evaluation#of#the#long-term#benefits#of#in-city#relocation#compared#

to#the#off-city#standardised#approach)#(Ballesteros#and#Egana,#2012).#As#expected,#the#

off-city#resettlement#sites#built#within#Oplan#LIKAS#experienced#the#same#issues#as#the#

resettlements# constructed# in# previous# decades.# Some# of# the# relocation# sites# lacked#

adequate#water#and#electricity#services,#and#the#livelihood#restoration#support#in#these#

sites#was#limited#(World#Bank,#2017).#Owing#to#these#issues,#the#government#committed#

to#providing# additional# investment# and# upgrading# interventions.# In# 2017,# about# P1.8#

billion,# taken# from#the#newly# reserved# P5.5# billion,#was# released# for# improvements#

works#in#these#neighbourhoods#(Bonaqua,#2017).##

Control/Over/Resources/and/Development,/Institutionalisation/and/the/Land/

Access/Issue/

Having#established#the#socio-political#context#of#off-city#relocation,#I#discuss#here#

the#resistance#of#the#political#and#bureaucratic#machinery#within#the#conservative#strain#

of#the#key#shelter#agencies#as#the#opposition#to#two#key#objectives#of#the#civil#society:#

gaining#wider#access#to#resources#and#greater#control#over#the#development#process,#as#

laid#out#in#section#3#of#this#article.##

The#difficulty#of#attaining#a#balanced#influence#on#governance#is#clearly#exhibited#

in#the#land#access#issue.#This#central#determinant#for#the#success#of#any#resettlement#

programme#was#problematic#in#the#Metro#Manila#context#during#the#decades#preceding#

the# programme.# In# the#early# post-colonial# period,# private# sector# actors# belonging# to#

several# powerful# families,# such# as# the# Ayalas,# Aranetas,# Ortigases# and# Tuazons,#

dominated#the#local# real#estate#market# (Garrido,# 2013).#In#the#following# decades,# the#

urban#enclaves,#ranging#from#gated#communities#to#condominium#districts,#which#were#

developed#by#financially#capable#private#investors,#occupied#more#and#more#land#with#

exclusive# designation# for# local# elites,# expats# and# overseas# Filipino# workers#(Kleibert,#

2018).#This#stark#competition#for#land#positioned#informal#settlers#as#the#key,#yet#easily#

removable,# ‘obstacle’# for#the# reinvention# of# commercially# valuable# areas# in# Metro#

Manila#(Choi,# 2016).# According# to# the# law,# the# local# government# units# (LGUs)# are#

mandated#to#delimit#land#for#social#housing#within#their#boundaries.#However,#by#the#

end#of#the#Oplan#LIKAS#process,#only#5#out#of#the#16#cites#and#one#municipality#in#Metro#

Manila#updated#the#Comprehensive#Land#Use#Plans#in#place#(World#Bank,#2017),#which#

meant# insufficient# or# no# land# reserved# for# social# housing.# The# situation# was# not#

challenged# even# with# the# support# of# international# agencies# such# as# the# Asian#

Development#Bank,#which#unsuccessfully#promoted#land#sharing#and#subsidiary#models#

for# in-city# social# housing# in# the# years# preceding# the# Oplan# LIKAS# (Hutchison,#Hout,#

Hughes#&#Robison#2014).#These#issues,#including#“problems#on#determining#vacant#land#

for# in-city# relocation”# (key# shelter# agency,# 01.02.2018)#provided# the# NHA#with# a#

justification# for#their# focus# on# off-city# relocation# when# faced# with# the# lack# of# lands#

reserved#for#social#housing#by#the#LGUs.##

However,#the#civil#society#designed#a#mechanism#to#address#the#problem.#Facing#

difficulties# in# obtaining# land,# the# leaders# of#the# main# urban# poor# groups# agreed# on# a#

multi-storey# housing#approach#(World# Bank,# 2016),# which# in# previous# decades# had#

been#contested# in# the# low-income# communities# (Karaos,# 2006).# The# principles# of#the#

People’s# Plans# were# embedded# in# the#High# Density# Housing# programme# of# the# SHFC#

(Figure#1).#The#communities#were#entitled#to#find#their#own#land,#select#developers#for#

the# construction,# manage# the# process# and# establish# facility# management# structures.#

Thus,# the# institutionalisation# of# the# land# research# component# was# supposed# to#

counterbalance#the#inability#(or#unwillingness)#of#the#local#governments#to#fulfil#their#

statutory#function#and#to#support#in-city#relocation.#As#such,#the#communities#were#to#

retain#greater#control#over#the#development#process#through#land#identification#while#

being# entitled# to# source# resources# from#the# P50# billion# fund# to# develop# their# multi-

storey#housing.#This#type#of#compromise#had#mixed#results.#Given#the#small#number#of#

projects#completed#with#the#People’s#Plans#(Table#1)#by#the#end#of#2017,#the#process#

turned#out#to#be#vulnerable#to#various#challenges.#In#addition#to#the#issue#of#community#

mobilisation,#the#land#access#issue#was#again#what#the#civil#society#leaders#identified#as#

critical.#As#noted#by#one#of#the#civil#society#leaders:#“It#should#have#been#in-city#because#

we#don’t#believe#in#off-site#so#they#allocated#50#billion#but#this#is#not#enough#because#

money#alone#(…)#and#People’s#Plans#will#be#not#a#guarantee#if#you#have#no#land”#(civil#

society,# 08-12-2017b).#For# instance,# the#CSO# representatives# reported# that# the# land#

identified#by#the#communities,#after#a#tedious#and#lengthy#process,#was#in#some#cases#

immediately#purchased#by#a#LGU#once#the#community#‘revealed’#its#information.#Similar#

difficulties#were#reported#in#the#search#for#public#land#by#some#communities,#with#the#

public#sector#characterised#by#a#tendency#to#resist#or#delay#the#process,#while#“there#is#

too# much# trouble# we# encounter# in# raising# the# fund,# explaining# the# technicalities# and#

about#the#conflict#of#legalities,#conflict#of#mandate”#(People’s#Organisation,#10-03-2018).#

In# effect,# these# challenges# relate#to# the# question#of#whether#the#co-productive#

engagement#of#the#civil#society#can#indeed#ensure#a#tighter#degree#of#control#over#the#

development#process#while#simultaneously#helping#the#process#of#the#redistribution#of#

resources..#The#main#stumbling#block#for#using#the#fund#for#in-city#relocation#was#the#

lack#of#land#access.#Civil# society#operations#did#unblock#some# of#the# idle#lands#in#the#

metropolis#for#mid-rise#buildings.#However,#these#small#successes#did#not#translate#into#

a#general#shift#towards#land#accessibility.#Thus,#the#institutionalisation#of#land#research#

by#communities#could#be#positioned#as#an#ersatz#solution#to#a#bigger#problem,#which#

lies#in#the#blockage#of#public#and#private#land#for#different#priorities.#This#issue#may#be#

linked#to#simple#economic#gain#or#the# aforementioned#orientation# of#formal#planning#

towards#the# needs#of#elite# consumers#(Garrido,# 2013).#In#the# absence#of#a#fixed#legal#

basis# on# a#countrywide#scale# making# in-city# relocation# (or# the# near-city# option)#

mandatory# and# requiring# that# resettlement# be# generally# driven# by# People’s# Plans,#

programme-level#institutionalisation#was#easily#condemned#by#its#critics#as#a#slow#and#

expensive# solution.# This#response#questions# the# extent# to# which# institutionalised# co-

production#(Joshie# &# Moore,# 2004)# can# affect# broader# governance# trends.# The# case#

study#suggests#that#in#an#exclusionary#governance#setting,#two#out#of#the#three#levels#of#

institutionalisation# discussed# by# Ackerman# (2004),# namely,# inscribing#a#participatory#

mechanism# into# the# strategic# plans# of# the# government# and# setting# up# new# agencies#

ensuring# participation,# may# be# easily# contested.# The# third# level,# inscribing#the#

participatory#solution#into#law,#was#acknowledged#by#some#of#the#civil#society#groups#as#

a#missing#element#in#the#Oplan#LIKAS#process.#Currently,#based#on#the#efforts#of#CSOs#

and#urban#poor#groups,#the#bill#on#“on-site,#in-city#or#near-city”#resettlement#in#support#

of# People’s# Plans# is# pending#in#the#Philippine#Senate.# However,# when# tracing#the#

implementation# of# UDHA# legislation# from# 1992,# including# the# previously# discussed#

failure#to#identify#the#land#for#social#housing#purposes,#the#effects#of#the#third#level#of#

institutionalisation#remain#unknown.##

Co-production/in/Perspective/

The# process# of# the# formation# of# the# UP-ALL,# the# 10-point# covenant# and# the#

establishment#of#the#P50#billion#fund#for#the#ISFs#is#an#example#of#the#civil#society#and#

urban# poor# sector# achieving# movement# from# small# and# mezzo-scale# co-productive#

projects# to#the# metro-scale# engagement# of# co-production# of# urban# space# and#

governance# in# Metro# Manila.# However,# the# implementation# of# the# programme# also#

illustrates#how#volatile#this#achievement#was.#The#analysis#suggests#that#the#strategies#

leading# to# the#success# of# CSOs# in# the# scaling-up#phase#were# less# successful# in# the#

governance/implementation#phase.#

The#success#achieved#in#the#first#phase#lies#in#three#key#points.#Firstly,#the#initial#

phase# included# the#internal#ability# to# build# up# a# network# large# enough# to# engage# in#

collective#action.#Secondly,#it#involved#external#boosting#of#the#credibility#of#the#alliance#

through#multiple#engagements#at#different#levels#of#governance,#starting#at#community#

level#and#ending#in#cooperation#with#international#agencies#(Herrle#et#al.,(2015).#Social-

movement# initiated# co-production,# understood# as# a# deliberate# mobilisation# and#

engagement# in# the#service# delivery# process,# was# instrumental# in#these# two# points.#

However,# the# third# crucial# point,# the# importance# of# the# contestation# and# advocacy#

strategies#utilised#by#a#part#of#the#UP-ALL#network,#questions#the#understanding#of#co-

production#as#a#consensual# engagement# and# points# out# how# it# differs# from# the#

collaborative# planning# process#(Watson,# 2014).# In# fact,# collaboration,# contention# and#

subversion#are#identified#as#complementary#strategies#of#the#grassroots#(Mitlin,#2018).#

The#research#supports#the#view#that#the#interaction#of#co-production#and#non-violent#

protest# activities,#including# court# action,# are# so#strongly# intertwined#and#built# upon#

each#other#that#they#form#a#part#of#one#approach.#The#network#did,#in#principle,#aim#at#

non-violent#forms#of#contention#whenever#the#power#‘generated,’#though#co-productive#

engagements#did#not#enable#them#to#secure#their#interests.#For#instance,#in#the#context#

of#Montinlupa# City,# where# competition# for# land# was# relatively# limited# and# the# local#

government#was#open#to#cooperation#with#communities,#the#mapping#activities#of#the#

HPFPH#could#be#scaled#up#without#the#need#to#resort#to#more#confrontational#measures.#

In# Manila,# where# local# government# is# much# less# open# to#cooperation# and# where#

competition# for# land# is# extreme,# rallies#in# support# of# co-production# and# against#

relocation# emerge# as# an# essential# part# of# the# strategy.# Similarly,# at#project# level,#

resisting# relocation# was# in# some# cases# a# starting# point# for# utilising# elements# of# co-

production#and#the#People’s#Plans.##

This#approach#may#resonate#also#in#the#activities#of#the#international#networks,#

commonly# labelled# as# utilising# co-production,# including# the# SDI,# which,# in# spite# of# its#

declared#separation#from#contention#strategies,#has#regional#affiliates#who#integrate#it#

into#their#actions#(Huchzermayer,#in#press).#In#other#words,#the#research#confirms#that#

the# ideal# model# of# conflict-free#co-production,# either# at# community# level# or# on# the#

community–politics# interface,# is# highly# unlikely,# particularly# when# we# talk# about# co-

production#of#governance.#Finally,#even#if#these#activities#of#the#co-production-oriented#

urban#poor#bloc#were#not#characterised#by#clearly#confrontational#dynamics#typical#of#

political#movements#aiming#at#universal#transformation#(Dikeç#&#Swyngedouw,#2017),#

the#pre-electoral#street-level#activities#of#the#UP-ALL#were#a#form#of#political#act.#In#fact,#

simply#building#up#a#network#through#the#co-productive#process#is,#in#itself,#political.#

Forming#a#massive#grouping#capable#of#affecting#political#processes#makes#these#groups#

and#their#leaders#a#relevant#force#in#election-based#systems.#As#such,#the#ability#to#form#

ad#hoc#alliances#(starting#from#the#bottom-up#level#within#small#administrative#units)#

should#be#brought#into#the#debate#as#an#important#element#framing#the#co-productive#

arrangements.##

Using#these#three#key#approaches,#the#civil#society#achieved#the#following#in#the#

first#phase:#

-secured#a#redistribution#of#resources#for#social#housing,

-positioned#its#main#agenda#points#at#the#centre#of#planning#discussions#and

-had#their#representatives#taken#on#by#some#of#the#most#important#shelter#agencies#in

Metro#Manila.

These# achievements# left# several# tangible# legacies,# such# as# proving#that#in-city#

resettlement#and#multi-storey#social#housing#is#an#option,#building#a#direct#engagement#

between#urban#poor#groups#and#the#private#sector#and#designating#the#People’s#Plans#as#

an# approach# for# planned# resettlement# projects# in# the# country# (mentioned# in# the#

documentation#concerning#the#North-South#Rail#project).#However,#the#implementation#

of#the#programme#remains#in#sharp#contrast#to#the#hopes#that#were#awakened#by#the#

P50# billion# fund.# It# was# already# clear# during# the# implementation# phase# of# the# Oplan#

LIKAS#that#the#three#aforementioned#achievements#were#being#challenged.#The#reasons#

for#this# contestation#lay# beyond# the# practicalities# of# the# approach,# such# as# cost# of# an#

intervention#or#its#applicability#to#the#needs#of#the#concerned#communities.##

The# bureaucratic# and# political# machinery# severely# contested# the# civil# society#

approaches,#and#was#effective#in#doing#so#because#of#off-stage#lobbying#and#the#shaping#

of# the# programme# in# accordance# with# conventional# budgetary# and# implementation#

measures.#On#the#one#hand,#the#urban#poor#groups,#which#were#effective#in#navigating#

informality# in# their# own# context,# had# fewer#tools# to# engage# with# the# informality#

unfolding# in#the# bureaucratic# environment# of# the# key# shelter# agencies.# On# the# other#

hand,#attempts#to#integrate#the#approaches#of#the#civil#society#were#also#contested#by#

the#‘formal’#and#operational#logic#of#bureaucracy#in#Metro#Manila#and#the#institutional#

setup# it# promoted.# In# this# context,# the# NHA# planning# routine# was# put# forward#as# a#

justification#for#continuing#to#deliver#services#in#the#same#way#as#it#had#always#done,#

failing# to# recognise# that# off-city# resettlement# planning,# with# its# territorial# and#

procedural# dimensions,# was# a# form# of# control# and# oppression#(Yiftachel,# 1998).#

Similarly,#as#in#the#international#context,#this#happened#despite#the#supposed#openness#

of# the# power#holders# and# policy# logic,# which#operated# with# the# language# of#

inclusiveness#(Appadurai,#2001;#Watson,#2011)#but#pushed#for#the#P50#billion#fund#to#

be#allocated#to#conventional#housing#modality.#While#the#People’s#Plans#were#supposed#

to#be#guaranteed#through#a#set#of#important#documents,#such#as#the#Joint#Memorandum#

Circular,# the# flexibility# of# the# approach# contradicted# the# rigid# process# of#the#yearly#

disbursement#of#money#and#the#legal#mandate#of#the#LGUs#to#vacate#in#a#timely#manner,#

the#risk-prone#areas#around#waterways.#Thus,#the#involvement#of#civil#society#actors#in#

the# process# exposed# them# to# the#political# and# intra-bureaucratic# dynamics# they#

encountered#on#a#smaller#scale#when#acting#as#an#extraneous#power#attempting#to#be#

involved# in#governance.# The# contestation#strategies,# which#were# relevant# during# the#

scaling#up#phase,#were#arguably#less#effective#because#the#civil#society#representatives#

managed# the# implementation# process# and# were# somehow# subjected# to# the# logic# of#

‘accomplishing# the# project’.# Additionally,# the# programme# was# hampered# by# the# land#

access#issue.#The#institutionalisation#of#the#People’s#Plans#revealed#itself#as#a#double-

edged# sword:# the# discourse# on# the# speed# of#the#classical# off-city# resettlement# was#

positioned#against#the#‘slowness’#of#the#people’s#solutions.#When#local#governments#and#

governmental# agencies# compete# for# the# same# resource# as# the# civil# society,# co-

production#is#at#risk#of#being#contested.#In#this#context,#the#institutionalisation#of#land#

research#by#the#communities,#within#the#High#Density#Housing#programme,#may#not#be#

enough#to#overcome#the#passivity#of#the#LGUs#in#the#execution#of#their#legal#function,#

namely# securing# in-city# land# for# social# housing.# This# point# confirms# that# the#

institutionalisation# of# co-production# in# the# context# of# the# South# is# not# uniformly# a#

guarantee# that# the# urban# poor#will# succeed# in# mainstreaming#their# approaches,#

particularly#when#the#implementation#logic#of#a#programme#counters#the#spirit#of#those#

approaches,#or#when#it#is#used#as#an#ersatz#justification#for#the#negligent#execution#of#

pro-poor#law.##

What#the#above-mentioned#experiences#mean#for#the#understanding#of#the#co-

production# governance# change# process,# is# that# innovations# achieved# at#project-# or#

mezzo-level# will# typically# be# challenged#when# scaling#up.# The# main# challenges# are#

linked#to#the#aspiration#of#mirroring#own#protocols#and#ensuring#flexibility#within#co-

produced#governance#when#organisations#have#to#operate#within#existing#legal#systems#

which#run#counter#to#those#principles.#While#co-production#is#conventionally#a#way#of#

overcoming#the#shortcomings#of#official#regulations#(Watson,#2014)#and#tends#to#work#

when#there#is#a#strong#relationship#between#the#local#authorities#and#the#communities,#

the# aspiration# to# scale# up#exposes# these# innovations# to# a# conventional# bureaucratic#

machinery# typically# more# interested# in# quantitative# success# than# qualitative#

improvements# (Galuszka,# 2017).# In# such# cases,# the# conventional# wisdom#that# co-

management# and# co-governance# are# enabled# by# institutionalisation# and# the# public#

sector# should# be# questioned# in# the# context# of# exclusionary# governance# settings.# The#

failure# of# civil# society# to# fully# benefit# from# the# context# created# by# the# Oplan# LIKAS#

suggests# that# co-production# of# governance# is# an# open-ended# process#which# will#

experience# highs# and# lows# while# interacting# with# the# bureaucratic# machinery# of# the#

state.#Maintaining#a#mobilised#network#of#people#engaged#in#collective#action#and,#even#

unintentionally,#representing#some#sort#of#unaffiliated#political#power#able#to#negotiate#

ad#hoc#coalitions,#might#be#a#stronger#guarantee#of#sustainability#of#People’s#approaches#

than#the# creation#of# programme-level# frameworks#(which#may# or#may#not#be# helpful#

depending# on# the# wider# governance# context).# This# points# to# the# centrality# of# the#

internal# function# of# co-production,# namely# its# role# in# creating# large# networks# linked#

through#collective#action.#

However# this# ‘security# buffer’# for# co-production# of# governance# –# the# active,#

interlinked#and#numerous#community-organisations#-#may#paradoxically#be#threatened#

when# the# changes# instigated# by# social# movements# take#the# form# of# resources.# The#

mobilisation# of# the# communities# on# the# ground# within# the# Oplan# LIKAS# was# not# as#

smooth# as# expected,# and# this# resulted# in# a# large# number# of#people#opting#for#

resettlement#in#off-city#neighbourhoods.#As#much#as#this#can#be#attributed#to#the#active#

lobbying# of# conservative# actors,# it# also# suggests# that# co-productive# modality,# such# as#

High#Density#Housing,# may# not#be#uniformly#attractive# to# informal#dwellers#when# its#

initial#costs#outweigh#long-term#benefits#(Ballesteros,#Ramos#&#Magtibay,#2017).#This#

points# to# the# issue# of# representation# within#the#co-productive# process# and# poses# the#

following#question:# Are# people# willing# to# engage# in# co-production# when#given# direct#

access#to#resources,#even#if#these#resources#are#in#faraway#relocation#sites?#Similar#to#

the# experiences# of# the# Capital# Subsidy# Scheme# in# South# Africa,# the# ease# of# pushing#

people#to#these#off-city#sites#without#serious#contestation#(World#Bank,#2017)#suggests#

that#the#resources#may#function#as#an#instrument#of#socio-economic#control,#in#which#

“popular# awareness# of# this# individual# entitlement# leads# directly# to# a# demand# for#

standardized#delivery,#leaving#no#space#for#collective#reflection#on#the#appropriateness#

of#the#individualized#product”#(Huchzermeyer,#2003,#p.#600).#Although#in#the#Philippine#

context#‘entitlement’#is#only#partial#since#the#housing#must#be#paid#for,#a#similar#role#is#

likely# played# by# the#lower# cost# of#an#off-city# location# which# comes# with# a# clear#

ownership# title,# compared# to#the# usufruct# agreement# that# applies# in# most# in-city#

locations.#Consequently,#the#sustainability#of#the#P50#billion#fund#was#hampered#by#the#

civil#society's#lack#of#control#over#the#distribution#of#the#money,#suggesting#that#neither#

of#their#goals#–#redistribution#of#resources#and#control#over#the#process#–#was#totally#

achieved.##

Conclusions/

This#article#documents#the#engagement#of#the#civil#society#in#urban#governance#in#Metro#

Manila# beyond# the# process# of# small# and# mezzo-scale# cooperation# projects# with# the#

public#sector.#The#scaling#up#phase#was#linked#to#the#considerable#success#of#the#UP-

ALL,# manifested# by# the# establishment# of# the# P50# billion# fund,# the# orientating# policy#

discussion# on# the# issues# of#co-productive# modality# of# People’s# Plans# and# in-city#

resettlement,# and# the# employment# of# civil# society# actors# in# the# main# implementing#

agencies#of#the#Oplan#LIKAS#programme.#As#such,#the#engagement#achieved#much#more#

than#past#participatory#approaches,#which#provided#some#new#communication#channels#

between#the#society#and#the#state#but#failed#to#impact#directly#on#policy#making#(Karaos,#

2006)# or# help# to# disentangle# communities# from# the# patronage# of# powerful# figures#

(Hutchison,# 2007;# Porio,# 2012).# However,# the# governance/implementation# phase#

revealed#that#these#achievements#left#a#few#tangible#legacies,#among#them#proof#that#a#

people-driven#development#of#in-city,#mid-rise#social#housing#is#possible.#The#fund#was#

mainly# utilised# for# conventional# off-city# resettlement,# People’s# Plans# were# rarely#

developed,#and#a#majority#of#the#civil#society#activists#lost#their#jobs#in#the#key#shelter#

agencies#after#the#change#of#political#leadership#in#the#country.##

An#analysis#of#the#process#offers#several#valuable#lessons#for#understanding#and#

advancing#a#governance-oriented#co-productive#process#in#an#exclusionary#governance#

setting.#

#########Firstly,# the# centrality# of# conflict# in# the# process# remains# crucial.# The# cooperative#

dimensions#of#co-production#are#essential#in#the#scaling#up#phase#–#and#have#both#an#

internal# function# (to# build# up# a# network)# and# an# external#function# (to# build#

relationships# with# government).# As# a# result# of# these#two# functions# the# co-production#

movement#reaches#further#than#participatory#schemes,#which#may#dismantle#collective#

agenda-building# and# promote# existing# solutions# rather# than# devising# new# ones.#

However,# moving# into# co-production# of# governance# is# unlikely# to# happen#unless#the#

movement,#or#a#part#of#it,#is#able#to#engage#in#protests,#manifest#dissatisfaction,#resist#

relocation,# establish# interactions# with# high-level#politicians# and,# in# so# doing,# be#

perceived#as#possessing#political#power.#Therefore,#the#conventional#understanding#of#

entirely# non-political,# consensual# movements# focusing# on# co-production#is# put# into#

question#when#groups#try#to#scale#up#and#genuinely#affect#urban#governance,#especially#

in#an#exclusionary#setting.#I#argue#here#that#at#this#stage#co-production#of#governance#

requires# the# integration# of#protest-based#strategies,# and# that#consensus-# and#

contention-based# approaches# are# barely#separable.# Purely# consensual# co-production#

that# mainly# employs# a# showing-by-doing# approach# may# be# effective# in# an# inclusive#

setting,# but# this# is# unlikely# to# be# the# case#in# contexts# where# land# prices# are# sky-

rocketing.##

Secondly,# the# research# questions# the# assumption# that# institutionalised# co-

production#(Joshi#and#Moore,#2004)#is#a#guarantee#of#the#sustainability#of#the#approach.#

If# the# co-productive# approach# is# institutionalised# at# project# and# programme# level#

without#broader#support#at#governance#level,#then#the#process#itself#may#limit#the#reach#

of#the#approach#and#exhibit#the#same#vulnerabilities#as#participatory#planning#schemes.#

Such#a#mechanism#may#actually#result#in#the#positioning#of#co-productive#solutions#as#

‘innovations’#or#as#‘alternative’#service#delivery#mechanisms,#with#the#majority#of#public#

contracts# being# consumed# by# big# developers# offering# standardised# mass# housing# in#

peripheral# locations# of# cities.# This#relates# to# the# notion# of# conflicting# rationalities#

(Watson,#2003)#and#powerful#imaginaries#of#a#dichotomy#between#formal#and#informal#

sectors#(McFarlane,#2012b)#as# strong# drivers#motivating#replication# of# ‘formal’#urban#

practice.##

Thirdly,#even#if#communities#engage#in#collective#action#and#are#the#proponents#

of#governance# change,#their#outputs,#such#as#redistribution#of#resources,#may,#in#fact,#

hamper# mainstreaming# of# co-production.# In# other# words,# the# assumption# that#

communities#will#always#be#eager#to#lead#the#process#of#change#may#be#valid#when#they#

do# not# have# any# other# solutions#to#hand.# Yet,# when# offered# faster,# ready-made#

alternatives# while# being# pressured# to# relocate,# many# people# will# choose# these# over# a#

complex# co-productive# process,# especially# when# community# leadership# is# weak# or#

fragmented.# This# also# means# that# reflection# on# intra-community# relations# as# a#

precondition#for#the#leveraging#of#co-production#should#be#repositioned#at#the#centre#of#

the#academic#inquiry.##

Overall,# co-production# remains# a# highly# paradoxical# process.# It# does# instigate#

change#of#governance#but# at#the# same#time# its#intrinsic#vulnerabilities#may#affect#the#

sustainability#of#the#change.#Addressing#this#paradox#is#central#for#academicians#and#for#

the#civil#society#actors#themselves#in#order#to#make#progress#in#scaling#up#the#approach#

and#developing#more#equitable#urban#settlements#and#governance#systems.#While#co-

production#may#be#one#of#the#most#powerful#mechanisms#for#citizens#to#meaningfully#

engage# with# the# public# sector,# when# the# engagement# reaches# the# highest# level# of#

governance#it#will#experience#strong#resistance#of#conservative#actors.#What#it#reveals#

about# governance# structures# in# an# exclusionary# context#is# that# rigid# regulatory#

mechanisms#can#be#used#to#support#a#wholly#informal#set#of#dependencies#and#pressure#

mechanisms#reinforcing# the#interests#of#power# holders.#The#sustainability# of#people’s#

solutions#may#truly#depend#on#the#ability#to#navigate#those#spaces.#Consequently,#the#

way# forward# in# understanding# the# governance# change# process# in# an# exclusionary#

governance# setting# requires# the# adaptation# of# renewed# analytical# frameworks.# Such#

frameworks# should#question# the# theoretical# underpinnings# of# this#process,# based# on#

assumptions#largely#deriving#from#‘developed’#contexts#(Yiftachel,#2006;#Roy,#2009b).#

The# juxtaposition# of# institutionalisation# vs.# flexibility,# conflict# vs.# cooperation,# and#

control#over#the#development#process#vs.#redistribution#of#resources,#may#offer#a#useful#

analytical# device# for# the# analysis# of# such# a# process# and# for# reaching# a# deeper#

understanding#of#the#complexities#of#the#governance#transformation#in#the#South.##

Acknowledgments://

I#would#like#to#thank#Dr#Marife#Ballesteros#and#the#Philippine#Institute#for#Development#

Studies# for# the# support# in# the# realisation# of# the# research# as# well# as# all# of# the#

interviewees#who#contributed#with#their#knowledge#and#time.##

Funding://

The#publication#of#the#article#was#supported#by#the#DAAD/BMZ.###

Bio:/

Jakub#Galuszka#is#an#urban#planner#and#sociologist#currently#working#as#a#researcher#at#

the# Habitat# Unit,# Technical# University# of# Berlin.# Before# joining# the# Habitat# Unit# he#

worked#and#conducted#research#in#Poland,#the#Philippines,#Georgia#and#South#Africa.#

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